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Data has emerged as ‘New Oil.’ As  technology has become the defining paradigm of the 21st century, the DPDP Act, India’s first data protection act, establishes a framework for the processing of personal data in India.

Context of the DPDP Act, 2023:

1. Rise in Digital Data Usage: as per Nokia’s Mobile Broadband Index (MBiT), Indian users on average consumed 24.1 gigabytes (GB) of data per capita per month in 2023 
2. Judicial Interpretation: Recognition of the Right to Privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution emphasizes the need for a data protection law to protect personal information in the digital age.
3. Global Trends: India’s DPDP Act mirrors global efforts to regulate data processing, such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). 
4. Previous Data Protection Drafts:  The DPDP Act, 2023, builds on earlier drafts of data protection bills (such as the Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019), which faced multiple revisions due to concerns over government exemptions, data localization, and compliance costs for businesses.
5. Rise in cyber crime – As per NCRB, in May 2024, the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) recorded an average of 7,000 cybercrime complaints per day. This is a 60.9% increase from 2022 to 2023 and an 113.7% increase from 2021 to 2023.
6. Use of Data in government schemes like Aadhar, DBT etc. 

Salient Features of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023:

1. Applicability: The DPDP Act applies to the processing of digital personal data in India, whether collected online or offline and later digitized. It also applies to data processing outside India if the data pertains to providing goods or services to data principals (individuals) within India.
2. Key Stakeholders: Data Principal (DP), Data Fiduciary, Data Processor
3. Penalty for Infringement: The Act imposes financial penalties for non-compliance, ranging from Rs. 10,000 to Rs. 250 crores, but does not impose criminal penalties.
4. Conflict with Existing Laws: The DPDP Act’s provisions are additional to existing laws. In case of conflict, the DPDP Act will take precedence to the extent of the conflict.
5. Data Protection Board of India (DPBI):

1. An independent body responsible for resolving disputes related to privacy and data protection.
2. It has the authority to impose penalties for non-compliance and breaches of the Act.
3. Appeals against DPBI orders can be made to the High Court, which can also take up breaches suo moto
4. Citizen’s Rights:

1. Right to Information: The DP has the right to know how their data is being used.
2. Right to Correction and Erasure: The DP can request corrections or erasure of their personal data.
3. Grievance Redressal: The DP has the right to approach authorities for grievances related to data breaches or misuse.
4. Right to Nominate: In case of death or incapacity, the DP can nominate someone to exercise their rights

Issues	Way Forward
Lack of Standardization: Inconsistent data formats and standards across different departments.	Establishing a clear implementation framework to ensure effective coordination.
Fragmented Systems results in data silos, making it difficult to share and access data across departments.	Developing decentralized, reliable databases to ensure that governance decisions are rooted in accurate and comprehensive data.
Inaccurate or outdated data Eg- Issues with the accuracy of data in land records	Opening of data “silos” to capture the potential wealth of data sharing between governmental offices, corporations and citizens.

By carefully choreographing a dance between data localization, infrastructure development, and technological innovation, India can pave the way for a data-driven future that is both innovative and accountable.

‘Narcoterrorism’ refers to the use of drug trafficking networks—routes, funding mechanisms, and

incomes—by terrorist organizations. According to the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), more than 100 instances of drone incursions reported in the India-Pakistan border alone in 2023, with most carrying heroin and weapons meant for terrorists operating in India.

Narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat:

1. Strategic location:  Proximity to the Golden Crescent to the west and the Golden Triangle to the east 
2. As per International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) Annual Report 2023, nearly 40% of the world’s opiate users reside in South Asia. 
3. Use of Technology – Cyber-enabled drug markets, operating on the dark web and crypto-markets, are making illicit drugs more accessible than ever before.
4. Linkage with terrorist groups: 20-30% of drug smuggling operations in Jammu and Kashmir are estimated to be linked to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) (IB Report).
5. Increased Smuggling through Coastal Routes: Eg-  seizure of 2,826 kg of drugs, comprising mostly heroin and cocaine, across India’s ports and coastal waters in 2023, the highest in 5 years.
6. Narcotics and Maoist Insurgency:  Maoist-linked drug operations are used to generate revenue for purchasing arms.
7. Use of Northeast India as a Transit Point: The porous borders of Northeast India, are used by insurgent groups like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) for drug smuggling. 
8. Use of Advanced Smuggling Methods: use of drones and maritime routes to smuggle drugs into India, especially across the Punjab and Gujarat borders.
9. Collaboration with State Actors: Pakistani state agencies are reportedly involved in facilitating narcoterrorism by supporting cross-border drug trafficking that funds terrorism in India.

Measures to counter narco-terrorism:

1. Strengthening Border Security:Enhance surveillance and monitoring along borders using advanced technologies such as drones, sensors, and AI to detect and prevent narcoterrorism activities, particularly along the India-Pakistan and India-Myanmar borders.
2. Strengthening Law Enforcement and Intelligence: 

1. Ensure the strict enforcement of laws like the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985. 
2. Ensure seamless sharing of real-time intelligence between agencies like the Intelligence Bureau (IB), Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), and NCB

3. International Cooperation: Collaborate with Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Afghanistan through bilateral and multilateral platforms like SAARC and BIMSTEC.
4. Community-Level Interventions: Establish comprehensive drug rehabilitation and de-addiction centers, particularly in regions with high drug abuse rates like Punjab.
5. Targeting the Nexus between Crime and Terrorism: Strengthening UAPA and financial regulations such as PMLA to target financial linkages between drug traffickers and terrorist groups.

A failed state in the neighbourhood combined with narco-terrorism can have serious consequences for India’s security. A comprehensive risk-mitigation approach is imperative to safeguard India’s national security and secure a better and healthier future for its citizens.

“World today is economically richer & environmentally poorer the ever” 

The UN Department of Public Information (DPI) defines the NGO as “a not-for-profit, voluntary citizen’s group that is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good.” 

Role of environmental NGO’s:

• Raising Public Awareness and Participation- Eg- In projects like the Vedanta bauxite mining project in Odisha, activists and NGOs mobilized local tribal communities to participate in public consultations, eventually leading to the project being halted.
• Advocacy and Legal Interventions – Eg- Activist groups like Kalpavriksh and Vanashakti have filed PILs against infrastructure developments in ecologically sensitive areas like the Western Ghats.
• .
• Independent Review and Monitoring of EIAs – Eg- Greenpeace India highlighted deficiencies in the EIA process in Mundra Port and SEZ project.
• Pressure for Policy Reforms- Their efforts have led to amendments in EIA regulations, such as improvements in the public hearing process and better safeguards for sensitive ecosystems.
• Exposing Environmental Violations – Eg-  In the Sterlite copper plant case in Tamil Nadu, NGO activism exposed how the plant was operating without proper environmental clearances, leading to closure of the plant.
• Engaging with International Advocacy Networks including development finance institutions to ensure stricter compliance with international environmental standards.

Examples

1. Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), led by social activist Medha Patkar. It raised concerns about the incomplete and flawed EIA, which did not fully assess the displacement of people or the ecological damage to the Narmada River ecosystem. While the dam was eventually built, NBA’s efforts ensured a greater focus on rehabilitation and resettlement policies.
2. Goa Foundation and Mining in Goa NGO/Activist Involved: filed petitions in the Supreme Court challenging the approval of mining leases based on inadequate and outdated EIAs. The NGO provided scientific data showing how large-scale illegal mining was leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, water pollution, and siltation of rivers, which affected agriculture and fisheries. In 2012, the Supreme Court imposed a ban on mining activities in Goa. 
3. Kalpavriksh and the POSCO Steel Plant Project in Odisha –  worked closely with local communities to highlight that the EIA did not address the full extent of forest clearance, water consumption, and pollution. The NGO submitted expert critiques to the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), pointing out deficiencies in the EIA process, including the lack of public consultations and ignoring of critical environmental impacts.  The MoEF revoked the forest clearance for the project in 2010. 
4. Himdhara and Hydropower Projects in Himachal PradeshNGO/Activist Involved: Himdhara conducted independent environmental impact assessments and highlighted issues such as improper evaluation of seismic risks, water flow changes, and the cumulative impacts of multiple hydropower projects on the river systems. As a result of their sustained efforts, the original design of the Luhri Hydroelectric Project was altered, reducing its capacity and minimizing environmental damage. 

Issues:

1. Organizational Issues – A survey by Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA) found that around 67% of small and medium-sized NGOs.
2. As per report by the Harvard Kennedy School the majority of NGOs in India don’t have Board for governance.
3. Regulatory Issues – Out of 3 million NGOs in the country, only about 175,000 of are registered on Niti Aayog’s Darpan portal.
4. Funding Constraints: Over dependence on government funding curtails their ability to hold government and administration accountable.
5. Security:  As per the Intelligence Bureau report, foreign-funded NGOs are acting as instruments for the foreign policy goals of Western governments. Their activism has led to reducing GDP growth by 2-3%.

Way Forward

1. 2nd ARC: set up an independent National Accreditation Council- to provide for the system of accreditation of voluntary organizations that seek funding from government agencies.
2. Vijay Kumar Committee Recommendations:  ‘Light regulation’ of NGO and  a separate law for voluntary agencies
3. Establishing a governing board enhances NGO governance.

NGOs are “integral cogs in the wheel of good governance”. A balanced partnership between genuine NGOs and the government is crucial for India’s progress.

As per CPCB report, 46 percent of the 603 Indian rivers are polluted based on indicator of organic pollution i.e. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (3mg/L) with the discharge of untreated industrial affluents as one of the major reasons.

Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue:

1. Impact river water quality:  According to the CPCB, the Ganges and Yamuna often exceed permissible limits for pollutants such as biological oxygen demand (BOD), fecal coliform, heavy metals, and other toxic substances.
2.  Impact on Aquatic Life:  High levels of toxicity in the Ganges has severely affected the population of the endangered Ganges river dolphin.
3.  Public Health Concerns: According to the World Bank, water pollution is responsible for around 1.5 million deaths annually in India due to preventable waterborne diseases.
4.  Socioeconomic Impacts: Irrigation with contaminated water affects crop quality and yields, Declining fish populations, and diminishing the aesthetic and cultural value of rivers that are vital to India’s heritage.

Mitigation Measures to deal with this problem:

1. Stringent Enforcement of Environmental Regulations: E.g. the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Environment Protection Act, 1986, which set standards for effluent discharge from industries.
2. Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs): Mandating industries to set up on-site ETPs to treat wastewater before discharge into rivers. 
3. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) Policy: Encouraging industries to adopt ZLD technologies, which ensure that all wastewater is treated and recycled within the plant.
4. Green Chemistry and Cleaner Production Techniques: This includes using environmentally friendly raw materials and energy-efficient processes to minimize the generation of pollutants at the source.
5. Riverbank Buffer Zones and Monitoring: Establishing buffer zones around rivers where industrial activities are restricted and setting up real-time water quality monitoring systems

Government Initiatives in this regard:

1. Namami Gange Programme: Over 150 sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been sanctioned under this program to improve the water quality of the Ganga.
2. National Water Mission: Under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, it focuses on water conservation, pollution reduction, and promoting efficient water use in industries.
3. National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT has mandated the closure of 123 industries for non-compliance with pollution standards in various river basins.
4. Pollution Control Boards (CPCB & SPCBs): Central and state pollution control boards regulate industrial discharges and set water quality standards. Regular inspections and pollution audits are conducted to ensure compliance.
5. River Rejuvenation Programs: The Narmada Seva Mission launched by the Madhya Pradesh government focuses on afforestation and pollution control to restore the Narmada River’s health.

Therefore, stronger enforcement and technological upgrades such as Denmark’s wastewater treatment model, can aid in mitigating the river pollution sustainably.

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) had introduced RFID-based FASTag as the primary technology used for electronic toll collection (ETC) in 2014. In February 2021, the government made FASTags compulsory for all vehicles, ensuring a cashless and more efficient toll collection system across the country.

Advantages:

1. Reduced Congestion: ETC eliminates the need for vehicles to stop at toll booths, thus reducing traffic congestion. 
2. Reduced Waiting Time: Cuts down toll plaza congestion, saving up to 20 minutes per trip (MoRTH, 2022).
3. Faster Processing: The system automatically charges the toll, reducing the transaction time significantly compared to manual toll collection.
4. Lower Operational Costs: ETC requires fewer staff at toll booths, leading to cost savings for toll operators.
5. Better Revenue Collection: Automated systems reduce human error and the risk of cash leakage or fraud, ensuring better toll revenue management.
6. Environmental Benefits: Reduced idling time at toll booths results in lower emissions from vehicles, contributing to environmental conservation.

Limitations:

1. Technical Glitches: such as improper tag placement, reader malfunction, or weather conditions (e.g., heavy rain), leading to delays or disputes.
2. Inconsistent Implementation: Not all state highways have fully integrated FASTag lanes, which can be confusing for drivers traveling on mixed routes.
3. Network Dependency: FASTag is heavily reliant on internet connectivity for real-time transactions. Poor connectivity at certain toll plazas can lead to failed or delayed transactions.
4. Customer Support and Disputes: Some users have reported difficulties with resolving issues like incorrect toll deductions or recharging problems, pointing to the need for improved customer support infrastructure.
5. Double Charges for Manual Payments: Vehicles without a functional FASTag or insufficient balance are charged double the toll when paying in cash, which can be seen as punitive rather than encouraging for drivers still transitioning to the system.

Proposed changes to make the process seamless:

1. Transition to ANPR-Based Tolling: ANPR will allow vehicles to pass through toll plazas without any physical tag by capturing and recognizing license plates for automatic toll deduction.
2. Distance-Based Tolling (GNSS/GPS): Instead of paying at multiple toll plazas, vehicles would be charged based on the actual distance they travel on the highways. This system could eliminate the need for physical toll plazas altogether.
3. Integration with State Highways: Extending FASTag coverage to more state highways and city roads, ensuring that drivers can experience a fully seamless journey without switching between tolling systems.
4. Contactless and Mobile Payments: Enabling mobile apps for real-time toll payments or integrating FASTag with digital wallets and payment platforms (e.g., UPI, Paytm) for increased convenience.

Potential hazards of this transition:

1. Data Security Risks: Increased digitization raises the risk of cyber-attacks, where sensitive data like vehicle movements and financial details can be compromised.
2. Technical Glitches:  Any glitch in the RFID or GPS system could result in incorrect toll charges or unregistered toll crossings, leading to disputes.
3. System Downtime: Power failures or system crashes can disrupt the toll collection process, leading to traffic jams and user dissatisfaction.
4. High Cost leading to higher tax burden on citizens

Road transport carries around 87% of India’s passenger traffic and over 60% of India’s freight traffic hence seamless traffic management is essential for goal of $5 Trillion economy.

As per WIPO, Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in the context of life materials, such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs), plant varieties, and biotechnological inventions, is a complex and ethically charged topic.

Present world scenario of IPR with respect to life materials:

1. International Legal Frameworks – Global agreements such as the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement under the World Trade Organization (WTO) provide a baseline for IPR protection, including life materials. 
2. Economic Contributions of Biotechnology:  The global biotechnology market is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 15.83%, reaching about $2.44 trillion by 2030. 
3. Global Patent Filings in Biotechnology:  According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), biotechnology patent applications represented about 13% of all global patent filings.
4. Impact of Biopiracy:  A study by the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) highlighted that up to 90% of traditional knowledge related to biodiversity remains unprotected globally, increasing the risk of exploitation.
5. Ethical Considerations and Public Perception:  According to a 2021 survey by the Pew Research Center, about 59% of respondents in developed countries expressed concern over the ethical implications of genetic engineering, which includes the patenting of life materials.

As per the Indian Patent Office, India filed about 65,000 patents in 2021-22, making it the second-highest filer of patents in the world, however only 5% of these lead to commercially viable products.

Reasons include:

1. Funding and Investment issues:  A report by NASSCOM indicated that Indian startups raised over $38 billion in funding in 2021, yet 40% of biotechnology startups cited access to capital as a primary barrier to commercialization.
2. Regulatory hurdles: According to Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), about 55% of biotech companies reported that regulatory hurdles are significant barriers to bringing products to market.
3. Weak Industry-Academia Linkages:  Innovations in Indian research institutes like CSIR often don’t reach the market due to poor industry partnerships. Less than 10% of patents filed by institutions like IITs and CSIR are transferred to industries for commercialization.
4. Insufficient infrastructure – India’s technological and incubation infrastructure is inadequate to support startups and innovators.
5. Intense competition from global players: Despite having biosimilars like insulin and monoclonal antibodies, Biocon Ltd. faces intense competition from global players, leading to challenges in commercializing its innovations effectively.
6. Disputes over traditional knowledge: E.g. turmeric and neem tree patent controversy with U.S. companies. Though the patents were eventually revoked, it showcased the struggles in translating traditional knowledge into commercial applications.
7. Public Opposition: Innovations like GM seeds often face resistance, as seen in the Bt brinjal controversy in India.

Some key measures to strengthen commercialization include:

1. National Intellectual Property Rights Policy 2016 which aims to create a robust IPR ecosystem and promote innovation and entrepreneurship.
2. Establishment of Patent Facilitation Centers to provide guidance and support to inventors, especially small enterprises and startups.
3. Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) for providing funding and support for innovation hubs, and incubation centers.
4. Protection of traditional knowledge and biodiversity through the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).
5. Revisiting the Drug and Clinical Trials Rules (2019) to expedite the approval process for new drugs and medical devices.

By strengthening the IPR framework and startup ecosystem India can realize the objective of VIKASIT BHARAT and KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY by 2047.          

In a country like India, where malnutrition, food insecurity, and lifestyle diseases coexist, millets, often termed “Nutri-cereals,” offer a powerful solution as they are not only nutritionally superior but also climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable. 

Role of millets in ensuring health security:

1. Diabetes Management:  The inclusion of FoxTail millet in the diet can improve glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in individuals with type 2 diabetes.
2. Cholesterol Management: Millets can help reduce levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol in the body, thereby lowering the risk of heart disease which is currently responsible for 28% of all the deaths in India..
3. Promotes Gut Health:  The high fiber content in millets acts as a probiotic thereby preventing gastrointestinal disorders such as constipation and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
4. Bone Health Management: Finger millet (ragi) is particularly rich in calcium whose adequate intake helps prevent osteoporosis and promotes overall skeletal health.
5. Celiac Disease Management:  Millets are naturally gluten-free, making them an excellent choice for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.

Role of millets in ensuring nutritional security:

1. Combat malnutrition through high nutrient density  – High Protein Content of about 10-15% protein, making them one of the richest sources of plant-based protein among cereals.
2. Alleviating hidden hunger: According to the World Health Organisation, nearly 30% of Indian women (15-49 years of age) suffer from iron deficiency anemia. Sorghum (jowar) which is rich in iron can help in combating anemia.
3. Addressing Vitamins and Minerals deficiency: Millets are a rich source of several B vitamins, including niacin (B3), riboflavin (B2), and folate (B9), which are crucial for energy metabolism and maintaining healthy skin, hair, and eyes.
4. Enhance dietary diversity: Offering an alternative to wheat and rice thereby improving upon agricultural and environmental sustainability as well.
5. Sustaining Small Farmers: Millets are a crucial crop for over 60% of small and marginal farmers in India, offering a reliable food source and livelihood in arid regions​

Government initiatives for promoting millets:

1. National Year of Millets 2018:  to revive traditional millet farming and raise awareness.
2. Renaming Millets as “Nutri-Cereals” and “Shree Anna”: to emphasize their high nutritional content.
3. State Specific Initiatives: E.g. Karnataka’s Raitha Siri Scheme aims at providing financial incentives to farmers for growing millets.
4. Millet-Based Products in Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Odisha has introduced millet-based recipes in school meals to provide better nutrition to children.

By focusing on both the demand and supply sides, India can significantly boost millet production, ensuring that millets become a staple in the Indian diet and a valuable export commodity.

Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice. Despite being major policy initiative it has remained an ‘Unfinished Agenda’

Factors responsible for successful implementation in some parts of the country:

1. Political Will and Strong Leadership – In West Bengal, the Left Front government played a crucial role in redistributing land under Operation Barga, benefitting a large number of sharecroppers.
2. Ideological Commitment: In states with leftist governments, like West Bengal, the ideological focus on equity and social justice played a vital role. The political leadership viewed land reforms as a tool for addressing socio-economic disparities.
3. Effective Peasant Movements: The success of land reforms in states like Kerala and West Bengal was closely linked to grassroots peasant movements. Eg- Tebhaga Movement
4. Active Participation of Local Communities: The Bhoodan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave in states like Maharashtra and Gujarat also played a role in redistributing land voluntarily from landowners to landless peasants, contributing to successful reforms.
5. Efficient Administrative Machinery – In Jammu and Kashmir, the administrative machinery was active in implementing the Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, which led to significant land redistribution.
6. Clear and unambiguous laws – In states like West Bengal, clear and stringent land ceiling laws prevented large landholders from retaining excess land. 
7. Judicial Support – Eg- In West Bengal, judicial decisions supported the protection of bargadars, ensuring the legal framework of the reforms was enforced even in cases where landlords tried to manipulate the system.
8. Decentralized Governance – The success of land reforms in West Bengal was partly due to the role of panchayats (village councils), which were empowered to help implement and monitor the redistribution of land.

However, some more challenges need to be addressed including:

1. The absence of adequate land records made implementation of these acts difficult.
2. Legal Loopholes – Eg- In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar
3. A large number of exemptions to the ceiling limits were permitted by most states. Eg- in most states the ceilings were imposed on individual and not family holdings, leading to dividing holdings in the names of relatives and Benami transfers to avoid the ceiling. 
4. CORRUPTION– The provisions to protect the small landowners were misused by the larger landlords and revenue officials as Most tenancies were oral and informal and not recorded.

Way Forward

1. Ashok Dalwai Committee Recommendations: reforms in land leasing, land titling, and creating a national land use policy to ensure sustainable agricultural practices and better land utilization.
2. Promoting Cooperative Farming on the AMUL Model: By pooling resources and collectively managing farms, farmers can achieve economies of scale, reduce costs, and increase productivity.
3. Private Sector Participation – Model Contract Farming Acts by States:
4. Digitisation of Land Records:
5. NITI Aayog’s Advocacy for Large-Scale Land Leasing
6. Presumptive Land Titling: Need to shift to Conclusive land titling as this can reduce land-related disputes which account for two-thirds of all pending court cases in India.

Case Study Bhoomi Project of Karnataka – The project digitized 20 million land records for 6.7 million landowners in 176 talukas of Karnataka

technology-assisted reforms such as the SWAMITVA scheme for clear land titles and the Digital India Land Record Modernisation Programme needs effective implementation.

As per data by RBI, in the period 2016-2020, the average food inflation was 2.9 percent. This has more than doubled in the 2020s to an average of 6.3 percent. It reached as high as 8.7 percent in April 2024.    

Causes of persistently high food inflation in India:

1. Supply and Demand Imbalances: Factors such as extreme weather events, crop failures, or pest infestations can reduce the supply of agricultural products, driving up prices. Conversely, a surge in demand, perhaps due to population growth or changes in consumer preferences, can also lead to higher prices if supply cannot keep up.
2. Temperature and Weather Challenges: Issues like adverse weather conditions, weak monsoons, and heatwaves led to cereal and pulse double-digit inflation in April 2024.
3. Fuel Price rise: An increase in fuel inflation by 1% leads to a 0.13% rise in food inflation, and the effect slowly declines through the next 12 months.
4. Post Harvest Losses: Approx 74 million tonnes of food is lost in India each year primarily due to inadequate storage and cold chain management further adding to food inflation.
5. Increase in input cost:  A report by the Fertilizer Association of India(2023) highlighted a 25% increase in fertilizer prices due to global supply chain issues.
6. Government Policies: E.g. Minimum Support Price leads to higher market prices for food grains and limits on stock holdings of essential commodities may lead to market speculation and artificial scarcity, spiking prices.
7. Trade Policies: Restrictions on imports can limit the variety of available food products and potentially drive up prices.

Effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation:

1. Inflation Targeting: By focusing on headline inflation, which includes food and fuel prices, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can anchor inflation expectations and prevent food inflation from spiraling into general inflation
2. Indirect Impact of Interest Rate Adjustments on Food Inflation:  By adjusting the repo rate, the RBI influences liquidity in the market, which in turn affects consumer demand.
3. Exchange Rate Management and Imported Food Inflation: In 2021, global food prices surged, especially edible oils. The RBI’s management of the exchange rate helped soften the impact of these global price hikes on domestic food inflation, though not fully.
4. Transmission of Monetary Policy to Agricultural Sector Credit: Monetary easing during 2020-2021, which lowered interest rates, helped to maintain credit flow to the agricultural sector during the pandemic. 

However, Monetary policy faces certain limitations as:

1. Food inflation in India is often driven by supply-side factors, such as poor infrastructure (irrigation, roads, cold storage), inefficient distribution systems, hoarding, and agricultural productivity issues.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in food prices (driven by rainfall, crop output, and global food prices) often deviate from the general inflation trend.
3. Fiscal Policy Impact – Eg- Government providing higher MSP
4. Effectiveness also depends on external factors such as global commodity markets and oil prices, over which the RBI has limited control.
5. High Share of Food in Consumption Basket: In emerging economies like India, where food constitutes a large portion of household expenditure (around 45% or more), food inflation directly affects overall inflation, making it harder for monetary policy alone to control it​
6. Lagged Impact: Monetary policy actions like interest rate hikes may take several quarters to influence inflation. However, food price shocks tend to be more immediate, meaning that monetary policy adjustments may not be timely enough to prevent short-term inflation spikes​

Government Measures Complementing RBI’s Monetary Policy:

1. Improving agricultural infrastructure like irrigation, cold storage, and rural roads.
2. Price stabilization measures such as buffer stock management through the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

Therefore as noted by Reserve Bank of India “the persistence of food inflation underscores the need for effective policy measures that address both demand and supply dynamics.