[UPSC 2022] What are the forces that influence ocean currents? Describe their role in fishing industry of the world.
Linkage: While it focuses on the influence of ocean currents rather than the threat of overfishing, it establishes the fishing industry as a subject of examination in the context of geography and marine environments.
Mentor’s Comment: India’s marine fisheries sector produces around three to four million tonnes of catch annually, showing that the country has reached its maximum sustainable yield. However, large mechanised fishing operations dominate the catch, while small-scale fishers—who make up 90% of the fishing population—harvest only about 10% of the total volume. Despite the high output, nearly three-quarters of marine fisher families live below the poverty line. When fishers invest in newer nets and bigger engines to catch ‘just one more kilo,’ they often fail to increase their catch significantly and instead incur higher debts, fuel expenses, and other costs, worsening the economic condition of these vulnerable communities.
Today’s editorial discusses issues in the Indian marine fisheries sector. This content will help you with GS Paper 2 (Policy Making) and GS Paper 3 (Indian Economy and Environment).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India’s marine fisheries sector faces an ecological and economic crisis. Although it produces 3–4 million tonnes of fish each year, it hides serious problems of unfairness and unsustainability.
What causes inequity in India’s marine fisheries despite high yields?
Dominance of Mechanised Fishing: Large mechanised vessels capture the majority of fish, leaving small-scale fishers with a minimal share. For example, though small-scale fishers make up 90% of the population, they catch only 10% of the total marine output.
Low Incomes Despite High Effort: Marginal increase in catch requires high investment in fuel, engines, and nets, increasing debts for traditional fishers. Eg: Even with larger engines, returns don’t rise proportionally, worsening poverty in fishing communities.
Bycatch and Wasteful Practices: High-volume trawling discards significant juvenile and non-target species, reducing long-term resource availability. Eg: Shrimp trawlers discard over 10 kg of bycatch for every 1 kg of shrimp caught.
Regulatory Fragmentation: Varying state laws allow exploitation of legal loopholes, enabling illegal or unsustainable practices. Eg: A fish species banned in one state can be caught and sold by landing in a neighbouring state.
Lack of Inclusive Governance: Small-scale fishers have limited role in fisheries decision-making and benefit-sharing mechanisms. Eg: Fisheries subsidies and infrastructure mainly support large operators, sidelining traditional communities.
Why is shrimp trawling harmful to marine ecosystems?
High Bycatch: Shrimp trawling results in excessive capture of non-target species, including juveniles. Eg: For every 1 kg of shrimp, over 10 kg of juvenile fish and other marine life are discarded.
Juvenile Fishing: Small mesh sizes allow immature fish to be caught, reducing breeding populations. Eg: Sub-legal mesh sizes (<25 mm) trap juvenile sardines and mackerel, threatening their recovery.
Habitat Destruction: Bottom trawling disturbs seabeds and coral reefs, degrading marine habitats. Eg: Trawl nets drag along the ocean floor, damaging reef ecosystems and invertebrate habitats.
Ecosystem Imbalance: Removing large quantities of multiple species disrupts food webs and marine biodiversity. Eg: Multi-species shrimp trawling affects dozens of species, weakening ecosystem stability.
Encourages Unsustainable Practices: The bycatch feeds fish-meal and fish-oil industries, incentivising further exploitation. Eg: Over half of trawl fishery hauls in some states are low-value bycatch ground into meal for export.
How do state-level laws hinder effective fisheries regulation?
Fragmented Legal Framework: Each coastal State/UT has its own Marine Fisheries Regulation Act (MFRA), leading to inconsistency in rules. Eg: A fish species protected as juvenile in one State may be legally caught in a neighbouring State.
Easy Circumvention: Fishers exploit legal loopholes by landing catch across State borders to avoid stricter regulations. Eg: Unscrupulous trawlers bypass juvenile fish bans by selling catch in States with weaker enforcement.
Undermines Conservation: Lack of harmonised standards weakens conservation efforts and encourages overfishing of vulnerable stocks. Eg: Inconsistent mesh size limits and closed season rules reduce the overall effectiveness of protection policies.
Which models show success in sustainable fisheries management?
Quota Management System (QMS): Aligns science and policy by setting total allowable catches based on stock assessments and allocating tradable quotas. Eg: New Zealand’s QMS, introduced in 1986, helped stabilise and rebuild key fisheries through individual transferable quotas.
Minimum Legal Size (MLS) Regulation: Enforcing size limits allows fish to mature and reproduce, leading to long-term stock recovery and improved fisher incomes. Eg: After Kerala implemented MLS for threadfin bream, catches rose by 41% in a single season.
Who should act to ensure marine fisheries sustainability in India?
Central Government: Should promote an ecosystem-based regulatory approach by reforming vessel licenses, infrastructure grants, and subsidies. Eg: Aligning subsidies with sustainability goals can discourage overfishing by mechanised fleets.
State Governments: Must strengthen enforcement of fisheries laws with better patrols and real-time reporting tools. Eg: Uniform implementation of gear restrictions and closed seasons across coastal states.
Fisher Cooperatives and Village Councils: Can act as co-managers of marine protected areas and breeding sanctuaries, ensuring community participation. Eg: Local councils enforcing seasonal bans and gear regulations in Kerala’s coastal villages.
Consumers (Urban & Rural): Should exercise responsible seafood consumption by choosing legally sized, sustainably sourced fish. Eg: Rejecting undersized fish in markets can reduce demand for juvenile catch and promote biodiversity.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Infrastructure Development: The government is modernising fisheries-related infrastructure to improve efficiency and reduce post-harvest losses. Eg: Under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), over ₹20,000 crore has been allocated to develop fishing harbours like the Mangalore fishing harbour and Paradeep harbour in Odisha with modern landing and storage facilities.
Fisheries Subsidies and Financial Support: Financial aid is provided to fishers for deep-sea fishing, insurance, and the adoption of sustainable practices. Eg: The Blue Revolution scheme supported the acquisition of deep-sea tuna longliners by Tamil Nadu fishers, promoting offshore fishing and reducing coastal pressure.
Policy Reforms and Conservation Measures: The government is implementing biological conservation through legal reforms like fishing bans, gear restrictions, and MLS regulations. Eg: The Kerala government’s implementation of Minimum Legal Size (MLS) for threadfin bream in 2017 resulted in a 41% increase in catch in just one season, showing improved fish stock regeneration.
Way forward:
Implement a unified national fisheries law to harmonise regulations across states, closing legal loopholes and strengthening enforcement for sustainable resource management.
Empower local fishing communities through co-management models, enhancing their participation in decision-making and conservation to ensure equitable benefits and long-term ecosystem health.
Most western border districts, except in Gujarat, had little or no growth in exports and saw slow poverty reduction. Now, recent tensions and shelling between India and Pakistan are hurting the economy in these 22 districts.
What causes slower poverty reduction in border districts?
Geopolitical Tensions and Hostile Neighbours: Constant threats such as cross-border shelling along the LoC disrupt livelihoods, infrastructure, and public services. Eg: In Jammu & Kashmir, border districts face frequent disruptions due to tensions with Pakistan, limiting economic stability and job opportunities.
Limited Economic and Industrial Activity: Border districts often lack a strong industrial base or service sector, leading to low income-generation and underemployment. Eg: In Rajasthan and Punjab, several border districts showed slower poverty reduction than State averages due to stagnant economic growth.
Inadequate Infrastructure: Poor roads, communication networks, and market access hinder economic integration and development. Eg:Eastern States like Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland face challenges due to remote terrain and limited connectivity, contributing to persistent poverty.
Declining Development Fund: Post-pandemic, central funding under schemes like the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) has declined sharply. Eg: After FY20, both western and eastern border areas experienced reduced support, slowing poverty reduction efforts.
Landlocked and Isolated Geography: Many border districts, especially in the Northeast, are landlocked and rely on external transport hubs, limiting local trade and economic activity. Eg: In Assam, 75% of border districts had a slower decline in poverty than the State average between 2015–16 and 2019–21.
Why are exports stagnant in most border districts except Gujarat?
Lack of Industrial and Export Ecosystem: Most border districts lack industrial clusters, export-processing zones, and supply chain infrastructure, which hampers export activity. Eg: Border districts in Punjab, Rajasthan, and Jammu & Kashmir contribute only 0.3% to India’s total exports, showing minimal export potential.
Geopolitical and Security Constraints: Tensions with neighboring countries and border insecurities restrict cross-border trade and deter investment in export-oriented industries. Eg: Frequent cross-border shelling along the LoC in J&K and Rajasthan affects trade operations and discourages private sector involvement.
Gujarat’s Strategic Advantage and Policy Support: Gujarat benefits from a coastal location, developed infrastructure, and proactive industrial policies, enabling strong export growth. Eg: Border districts in Gujarat increased their export share from 1.9% in FY22 to 3% in FY24, in contrast to stagnation elsewhere.
Which border districts performed better economically?
Gujarat is the only western border State where all border districts saw a faster decline in poverty than the State average.
Eg: export share from border districts rose from 1.9% (FY22) to 3% (FY24) — indicating successful economic activity.
Why did the government’s support to border areas decline?
Reallocation of Resources Post-Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic shifted national priorities toward healthcare, urban welfare, and fiscal recovery, resulting in reduced focus on border-specific programmes. Eg: Post FY20, schemes like the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) faced budget cuts as funds were redirected to pandemic-related needs.
Security-Centric Approach Over Development: In sensitive regions, the government adopted a more security-focused strategy, often at the cost of developmental spending in border districts. Eg: In J&K and Punjab, heightened defence and surveillance measures took precedence, sidelining economic initiatives and local development schemes.
Administrative and Logistical Challenges: Border areas, especially in the Northeast, face issues like difficult terrain, poor connectivity, and limited administrative reach, deterring consistent support. Eg: In Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, implementation hurdles led to underutilization of allocated funds, reducing the impact of central schemes.
Way forward:
Targeted Development & Infrastructure Boost: Prioritise region-specific infrastructure (roads, logistics hubs, digital connectivity) and promote border-based industrial clusters to generate employment and improve trade potential.
Revive and Expand BADP with Integrated Planning: Strengthen the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) with post-pandemic funding revival, and ensure convergence with state schemes for holistic socio-economic upliftment of border districts.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.
Linkage: The security problems along the border, such as India-Pakistan tensions and cross-border shelling, as seen in the “India’s Border Districts”. It also explores how development programmes address these issues, directly linking security challenges with economic and development concerns in border regions. It clearly connects border tensions with the economic struggles in these areas.
A recent study titled ‘Poverty Decline in India after 2011–12: Bigger Picture Evidence’ shows that poverty in India fell from 37% in 2004-05 to 22% in 2011-12. However, poverty declined by only an additional 18% until 2022-23, and officials have not released any poverty estimates after 2011-12.
What are the three methods used to estimate post-2011 poverty in India?
Alternative NSSO Surveys: Using different socio-economic surveys like the Usual Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (UMPCE) from NSSO rounds after 2011-12, despite comparability issues with earlier surveys. Eg: Estimates based on UMPCE suggest poverty between 26-30% in 2019-20.
Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) Scaling: Scaling consumption data from the 2011-12 Household Consumption Expenditure Survey using the growth rate of PFCE from National Accounts Statistics (NAS) to estimate consumption trends. Eg: Used by economist Surjit Bhalla and colleagues in 2022.
Survey-to-Survey Imputation: Filling data gaps by linking related surveys (e.g., consumption surveys with employment surveys) through imputation models, often at the State level for better accuracy. Eg: The recent study titled ‘Poverty Decline in India after 2011–12: Bigger Picture Evidence’ study using NSSO Employment-Unemployment Surveys with Consumer Expenditure Surveys to estimate poverty decline to about 18% in 2022-23.
Note:Surjit Bhalla is an Indian economist, author, and columnist who served as Executive Director for India at the International Monetary Fund.
How much has poverty declined post-2011–12, and how does it compare with the earlier period?
Sharp slowdown: Poverty fell from 37% (2004–05) to 22% (2011–12), a 15-point drop, but only to 18% by 2022–23, a mere 4-point reduction in over a decade.
Absolute poverty numbers: Number of poor declined from 250 million to 225 million in 10 years — a decline of only 10%, compared to a much faster fall earlier.
GDP correlation: GDP growth slowed from 6.9% (2004–12) to 5.7% (2012–23), consistent with slower poverty reduction.
Why has the poverty reduction slowed since 2011-2012?
Slower GDP Growth: Average GDP growth declined from 6.9% (2004-05 to 2011-12) to 5.7% (2011-12 to 2022-23), correlating with slower poverty reduction.
Declining Real Wage Growth: Growth in rural wages slowed down significantly — from 4.13% annually before 2011-12 to 2.3% after 2011-12.
Rising Agricultural Workforce with Lower Productivity: After a decline in agricultural workers till 2017-18, 68 million workers joined agriculture post-2017-18, leading to lower agricultural productivity and wages, which hampers poverty reduction.
How do the Poverty trends vary across Indian States?
Significant Poverty Reduction: Some states have shown marked improvement in reducing poverty levels after 2011-12. Eg: Uttar Pradesh has notably decreased its poverty rate during this period.
Slow Progress: Historically poor states continue to struggle with slow poverty reduction due to persistent socio-economic challenges. Eg: Jharkhand and Bihar have experienced much slower declines in poverty rates.
Stagnation: Several large and economically important states have seen poverty reduction stagnate, with little change over the years. Eg: Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh show almost no improvement in poverty reduction post-2011-12.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
Implementation of Social Welfare Schemes: The government has launched various targeted welfare programs to support the poor and vulnerable groups. Eg: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana for affordable housing.
Focus on Employment Generation: Programs aimed at creating jobs, especially in rural areas, to increase income and reduce poverty. Eg: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).
Financial Inclusion Initiatives: Efforts to increase access to banking and financial services for the poor. Eg: Jan Dhan Yojana, which promotes opening of bank accounts for the unbanked.
Agricultural Support and Reforms: Policies to improve farmers’ incomes and agricultural productivity to support rural livelihoods. Eg: PM-Kisan Samman Nidhi, providing direct income support to farmers.
Health and Education Programs: Investments in healthcare and education to improve human capital and break the cycle of poverty. Eg: Ayushman Bharat health insurance scheme for poor families.
Way forward:
Rural Wage & Productivity Growth: Boost rural wages and agricultural productivity by implementing reforms, improving access to technology, and providing skill development to increase income and reduce poverty sustainably.
Data Accuracy & Monitoring: Improve data collection and real-time monitoring of poverty indicators to ensure precise measurement, enabling better-targeted policies and effective poverty alleviation programs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Though there have been several different estimates of poverty in India, all indicate reduction in poverty levels over time. Do you agree? Critically examine with reference to urban and rural poverty indicators.
Linkage: Estimates consistently show a reduction in poverty over time rather than the underlying surveys or methodologies used to produce them, answering this question effectively would require knowledge that various estimates exist, often derived from different data sources or approaches.
A new ETH Zurich study warns that under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) 5-8.5 scenario, warming could make cyclones more intense and hit unusual regions with greater damage.
What are Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)?
Definition: SSPs are 5 global scenarios that show how changes in society, economy, and technology might influence climate adaptation and mitigation.
Purpose: They complement Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) by adding socioeconomic context to climate models.
Development: Created in the late 2000s, published in 2016, and used in the IPCC 6th Assessment Report and CMIP6 models.
Function: SSPs assume no new climate policies, helping scientists explore how global trends affect emissions and climate action.
The Five Pathways:
SSP1: Sustainable and equitable world
SSP2: Continuation of current trends
SSP3: Regional rivalry with high population growth
SSP4: Unequal world with high disparities
SSP5: Fossil-fuel-based rapid economic growth
Usage: SSPs are used with RCPs to explore how different futures could affect the 1.5°C or 2°C warming targets.
Significance: They help policymakers assess how societal choices impact climate risks, emissions, and the feasibility of global goals.
Radiative Forcing: SSP5-8.5 implies 8.5 W/m² of energy, compared to about 2.7 W/m² today.
Climate Target Gap: To limit warming below 2°C, forcing must stay around 2.6 W/m².
Cyclone Projections: Using the CLIMADA (climate adaptation) AI model, scientists studied past cyclone patterns and projected risks from 2015–2050.
Ecoregion Types:
Resilient: Often affected, but recover quickly
Dependent: Moderately impacted and adaptive
Vulnerable: Rarely hit but slow to recover
Findings:
Time between severe cyclones in resilient areas may drop from 19 to 12 years.
East Asia, Central America, and the Caribbean will face stronger, more frequent cyclones.
Madagascar, Oceania, and the Philippines will face unprecedented cyclone activity.
Impact on Mangroves and Coastal Ecosystems:
Mangrove Risk: By 2100, up to 56% of global mangroves could be at high to severe risk.
Most Affected Region: Southeast Asia, with 52–78% of mangroves at risk.
Other Scenario Impact (SSP3-7.0): Even under less severe warming, 97–98% of protective mangroves in Southeast Asia could still face critical threats.
Environmental Concern: These losses would severely weaken coastal protection, biodiversity, and carbon storage.
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only. 2. Only some cyclones develop an eye. 3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only* (d) 1 and 3 only
At the 78th World Health Assembly held in Geneva, the World Health Organisation (WHO) adopted a new Pandemic Agreement that aims to make the global response to future pandemics more equitable and effective.
About the WHO Pandemic Agreement:
Adoption: It was unanimously adopted at the 78th World Health Assembly in Geneva after 3years of negotiation since the COVID-19 pandemic.
Legal Basis: It was adopted under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution, making it only the second such legally binding agreement after the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (2003).
Primary Goal: To ensure fair and timely access to vaccines, medicines, and diagnostic tools during future pandemics.
Stakeholders: It promotes collaboration among countries, WHO, pharmaceutical firms, civil society, and other stakeholders.
Next Steps: It will come into force once ratified by at least 60 countries; the final annex is expected by May 2026.
Irritant: The US has not joined, raising concerns about the agreement’s global effectiveness.
Key Highlights of the Agreement:
Pathogen Access and Benefit Sharing (PABS): A new system will ensure quick virus sample sharing with companies, who must give 20% of vaccines and medicines to WHO—10% as donations and10% at affordable prices.
Global Supply Chain and Logistics Network (GSCL): A WHO-managed network will ensure emergency access to critical supplies during pandemics.
Coordinating Financial Mechanism: A funding system will support countries in pandemic preparedness and response.
Sustainable Local Production: Countries are encouraged to build vaccine and medicine production capacity to ensure rapid and equal access.
Technology and Knowledge Transfer: Supports technology sharing with developing nations using licensing, financing, and regulatory tools, coordinated via WHO-managed hubs.
Pandemic Prevention and Surveillance: Countries must improve early detection, routine vaccinations, and address lab safety, antimicrobial resistance, and zoonotic threats.
Respect for Sovereignty: The WHO will not enforce national policies like lockdowns, vaccine mandates, or travel bans; countries retain full control over responses.
[UPSC 2022] In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements:
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
In a major move to fight cyber fraud and financial crime, the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has launched the Financial Fraud Risk Indicator (FRI) as a part of the Digital Intelligence Platform (DIP).
Back2Basics: Digital Intelligence Platform (DIP)
DIP is developed by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) as a secure, integrated platform for real-time intelligence sharing.
Stakeholders Involved: It connects Telecom Service Providers (TSPs), law enforcement agencies (LEAs), banks, financial institutions, social media platforms, and identity document issuers.
Functionality: The platform contains information on telecom resource misuse and supports case tracking and coordinated action.
Sanchar Saathi Integration: DIP acts as a backend system for citizen requests submitted through the Sanchar Saathi portal.
Access Control: DIP is available only to authorized stakeholders via secure connections and is NOT accessible to public.
What is the Financial Fraud Risk Indicator (FRI)?
Purpose: FRI is a risk-based tool that flags mobile numbers as Medium, High, or Very High risk for financial fraud.
Beneficiaries: Helps banks, NBFCs, and UPI service providers implement added security for high-risk numbers.
How It Works:
The Digital Intelligence Unit (DIU) shares a Mobile Number Revocation List (MNRL) with reasons like cybercrime, failed verification, or excess usage.
The tool performs multi-dimensional analysis and assigns a fraud risk level.
Risk status is shared in real-time via DIP, enabling early action before fraud occurs.
Case Study: PhonePe’s use of FRI System
PhonePe was one of the first adopters of the FRI system.
It uses FRI to:
Block transactions linked to Very High-risk numbers.
Display alerts using the PhonePe Protect feature.
For Medium-risk numbers, PhonePe is working on showing proactive user warnings before transactions.
The tool has proven highly accurate in identifying numbers involved in cyber fraud.
[UPSC 2021] Which one of the following effects of the creation of black money in India has been the main cause of worry to the Government of India?
Options: (a) Diversion of resources to the purchase of real estate and investment in luxury housing (b) Investment in unproductive activities and purchase of precious stones, jewelry, gold, etc. (c) Large donations to political parties and the growth of regionalism (d) Loss of revenue to the State Exchequer due to tax evasion*
Read about Sai Shivani’s (AIR 11, UPSC 2024) Webinar
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She stopped chasing too many resources and instead simplified her preparation. One of the key things that helped her was breaking the syllabus into small, manageable microthemes — something that made reading, note making, and revision feel less overwhelming. But it wasn’t just about microthemes. What truly made the difference was her ability to stay consistent with a structured approach.
Now, Shivani is an AIR 11 rank holder in UPSC 2024. And what’s most inspiring is that she achieved this right after facing failure, not with a big coaching strategy, but with a quiet, focused plan that she built herself.
With the next Prelims just a year away, she’s coming to share her complete 12 month strategy — the same plan she wishes she had when she started. In this session, she’ll talk about how she spread her GS, Essay, Optional, and Current Affairs preparation over the year, how she balanced Prelims and Mains together, and how she protected her peace of mind in a journey that often feels endless.
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Join Sai Shivani live on 23rd May at 7 PM and walk away not just inspired, but with a plan that makes sense.
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See you in the session”
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[UPSC 2021] Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India.
Linkage: While the PYQ focuses on empowerment and women within the gig economy, it aligns with the broader theme of identity and status challenges faced by workers in non-traditional/precarious employment structures, a challenge explicitly highlighted for SBWs and then linked to gig workers in the article.
Mentor’s Comment: The central government employs millions of regular and contract workers, including around 60 million in schemes like ICDS, NRHM, and mid-day meals. These workers—such as Anganwadi workers, helpers, ASHAs, and mid-day meal staff—support children, mothers, and nutrition. They connect communities with public health and help improve school enrollment and overall health.
Today’s editorial talks about the problems faced by Scheme-Based Workers (SBWs). This content is useful for GS Paper I (Women’s Issues) and GS Paper II (Social Justice).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The recent developments surrounding Scheme-Based Workers (SBWs)—particularly Anganwadi workers, ASHAs, and MDM workers—have reignited the debate on labour identity, social security, and worker rights in India.
Who are scheme-based workers (SBWs)?
Workers employed under various government social welfare schemes but not formally recognized as government employees. Around 60 million workers across government schemes. Eg: Anganwadi Workers (AWWs), Anganwadi Helpers (AWHs), Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) and Mid-Day Meal Workers (MDMWs).
ICDS (since 1975), National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), and Mid-Day Meal Scheme.
What roles do they perform?
Childcare and Nutrition Services: SBWs play a vital role in early childhood care by ensuring nutritional support, immunization, and preschool education. Eg: Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) under the ICDS scheme provide nutrition and basic health services to children and lactating mothers.
Public Health Outreach: They serve as a crucial link between the public health system and rural communities, improving health awareness and access. Eg: ASHAs under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) assist in maternal care, vaccination drives, and promote institutional deliveries.
Educational and Nutritional Support in Schools: They help enhance school enrollment and retention by providing mid-day meals, which also address child malnutrition. Eg: Mid-Day Meal Workers (MDMWs) prepare and distribute meals in schools under the Mid-Day Meal Scheme.
What challenges do SBWs face in gaining formal recognition and benefits?
Lack of Worker Status: SBWs are often classified as “volunteers” or “honorary workers” rather than formal employees, denying them recognition as government workers. Eg: The Supreme Court in State of Karnataka vs Ameerbi (2006) ruled that Anganwadi workers are not state employees as they don’t hold statutory posts.
Absence of Minimum Wages: Most SBWs receive honorariums instead of wages, which are far below minimum wage standards. Eg: Anganwadi workers and helpers across states earn as low as ₹4,500–₹9,000 per month, without alignment to state minimum wage norms.
No Social Security Benefits: SBWs are denied access to pensions, provident fund, maternity benefits, and health insurance. Eg: Despite working in public health, ASHAs are not covered under schemes like EPFO or ESI.
Policy Delay and Avoidance: Governments often cite financial burden or the need for long-term planning to delay regularisation. Eg: In 2016, the Labour Minister told Parliament that there’s no fixed timeline to implement ILC recommendations for SBWs.
Suppression of Collective Action: SBWs’ strikes are often met with state repression or legal barriers. Eg: Maharashtra invoked the Essential Services Maintenance Act (ESMA) in 2017 to curb Anganwadi workers’ right to strike.
Why is the government reluctant to regularise SBWs?
Financial Burden: Regularising SBWs would significantly increase the government’s salary and welfare expenditure, making it fiscally unsustainable. Eg: The central government employs over 60 lakh SBWs, and converting them to regular employees would involve massive budgetary allocations for wages and benefits.
Policy Ambiguity: Successive governments delay decisions by citing the need for long-term policy formulation without committing to a timeline. Eg: In 2016, the Labour Minister told the Rajya Sabha that implementing Indian Labour Conference (ILC) recommendations requires indefinite planning.
Privatisation Push: The government aims to reduce its role in welfare delivery by promoting public-private partnerships, weakening the case for regularisation. Eg: There have been attempts to privatise the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), directly affecting the employment security of Anganwadi workers.
How have trade unions and courts supported SBWs’ demands?
Union Mobilisation: Major trade unions have organised SBWs to demand minimum wages, worker status, and social security through strikes and negotiations. Eg: In March 2025, Anganwadi workers in Kerala ended a 13-day indefinite strike organised by unions like AITUC, BMS, and CITU demanding regularisation and fair pay.
Judicial Recognition: Courts have gradually recognised some labour rights of SBWs, even when earlier rulings were unfavourable. Eg: In Maniben Maganbhai Bhariya vs District Development Officer (2022), the Supreme Court ruled that Anganwadi workers are eligible for gratuity under the Payment of Gratuity Act.
What are the policy implications of granting SBWs formal employee status?
Fiscal Burden: Recognising SBWs as formal employees would significantly increase the government’s expenditure on salaries, pensions, and social security. Eg: The central government is concerned about cost implications due to the growing number of SBWs (nearly 6 million), especially as population-linked schemes expand.
Policy Reorientation: Granting formal status would require new frameworks for recruitment, training, service conditions, and grievance redressal. Eg: The Gujarat High Court in 2024 directed the State and Centre to create a joint policy to regularise Anganwadi workers as Class III and IV employees.
Precedent for Other Informal Workers: Regularising SBWs could set a precedent for other informal or gig workers demanding similar recognition and protections. Eg: Like SBWs, gig workers (e.g., delivery partners) are also fighting for worker status and social security rights in courts and labour forums.
Way forward:
Enact Clear Policies: Governments should promptly create and implement policies to grant SBWs formal worker status with fair wages and social security benefits.
Strengthen Monitoring: Improve enforcement by regional bodies to ensure timely wage revisions, labour rights protection, and prevent exploitation of SBWs.
N4S: India’s elections shape democracy, yet challenges persist—from money power to trust in EVMs. The UPSC often asks questions on electoral reforms (e.g., GS2, 2024: “Examine the need for electoral reforms…”). Aspirants falter by memorizing facts without grasping debates. This article fixes that by showing reforms in action—how the Election Commission (ECI) negotiates with parties (e.g., VVPAT introduction in 2013) and ongoing hurdles like criminal candidates (46% MPs in 2024). A unique feature? The Back2Basics section. It simplifies Evolution of India’s Voting Process that would help you understand the changes in the electoral process and reasons behind it. This isn’t just exam prep—it’s an invitation to think critically about democracy.
PYQ ANCHORING
Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “one nation-one election” principle. [GS 2, 2024]
In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Ma chines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? [GS 2, 2018]
Microtheme: Elections
In An Undocumented Wonder: The Making of the Great Indian Election, former Chief Election Commissioner S.Y. Quraishi highlights a crucial debate between the Election Commission of India (ECI) and political parties over the misuse of money in elections. While some parties favored stricter spending limits, others argued that financial controls would hinder voter outreach. The ECI, however, stood firm, emphasizing that democracy should be a level playing field, not a contest of financial power.
This is just one example of how electoral reforms in India have emerged through structured discussions between the ECI and political parties. But do these engagements truly drive meaningful change, or are they just political formalities? As elections evolve, it’s essential to examine these consultations, the reforms they have led to, and the challenges that still threaten electoral integrity.
Rationale behind Regular ECI-Political Party Engagement
The Election Commission of India’s (ECI) initiative to engage with political parties is a positive step toward strengthening democratic processes. Regular dialogue fosters trust, addresses concerns, and ensures fair electoral practices.
Key Benefits
Improved Transparency – Open discussions can clarify electoral procedures, reducing misinformation and disputes.
Consensus on Reforms – Political parties can provide inputs on changes in electoral laws and processes, ensuring wider acceptance.
Curbing Malpractices – Collaboration can help in tackling issues like money power, fake news, and voter manipulation.
Boosting Voter Confidence – A transparent election system enhances public trust and participation.
Technology & Security Enhancements – Regular consultations help address concerns regarding EVMs, voter rolls, and cyber threats.
For India’s democracy to remain robust, institutionalizing such interactions can ensure a level playing field and uphold electoral integrity.
Reforms that have emerged from ECI-Political Party Consultations
Introduction of Model Code of Conduct (MCC) Updates – Political parties have contributed to refining MCC guidelines, ensuring ethical campaigning.
VVPAT Implementation (2013) – Political parties’ demand for greater transparency led to the introduction of Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) alongside EVMs.
Capping of Cash Donations (2017) – Based on discussions, the maximum anonymous cash donation to political parties was reduced from ₹20,000 to ₹2,000 to curb black money in elections.
Remote Voting for Migrant Workers (Proposed) – Consultations with parties influenced the ECI’s proposal to introduce a Remote Electronic Voting Machine (RVM) for migrant voters.
Social Media & Campaign Regulations – Rules on paid advertisements, hate speech monitoring, and campaign expenditure on digital platforms were framed after discussions with stakeholders.
Such engagements help shape electoral reforms, ensuring wider acceptance and credibility in the democratic process.
EXISTING CONCERNS IN ELECTORAL PROCESS
Key Concerns in the Electoral Process
Details
Voting and Counting Issues
Concerns Over EVM Tampering
Many people sought a return to paper ballots citing concerns regarding EVM tampering.
100% VVPAT Verification
Critics of EVMs seek full VVPAT-EVM matching, but currently, only five machines per assembly constituency/segment are matched. Instead, the SC instructed engineers to verify the burnt memory of microcontrollers in 5% of EVMs if tampering is suspected.
Alleged Electoral Roll Manipulation
Opposition parties claimed large numbers of fake voters were added before the Maharashtra and Delhi Assembly elections. The EC attributed duplication to earlier decentralized EPIC allotment before shifting to ERONET.
Duplicate EPIC Numbers
Some voters in states like West Bengal, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab reportedly have identical EPIC numbers. The EC clarified that voters can only vote at their designated polling station, regardless of their EPIC number.
Campaign Process Issues
Violation of Model Code of Conduct (MCC)
Star campaigners often use inappropriate language, appeal to caste/communal sentiments, and make unverified allegations.
Election Expenditure
Candidates exceed spending limits, while there are no limits on party expenditure. Political parties spent nearly Rs 1,00,000 crore during the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.
Criminalization of Politics
In 2024, 46% (251) of elected MPs have criminal cases, with 31% (170) facing serious charges like rape, murder, and kidnapping.
Use of Social Media for Misinformation
The rise of social media has led to its misuse for spreading misinformation and fake news during election campaigns, influencing voter perceptions and undermining the democratic process.
Institutional Challenges
Autonomy of the Election Commission
Concerns have been raised regarding the independence of the Election Commission of India (ECI), with allegations of bias in decision-making favoring ruling parties.
Judicial Delays in Electoral Disputes
Cases related to electoral malpractice, disqualification, and disputes often take years to resolve in courts, reducing the immediate impact of legal interventions.
State Funding of Elections
The debate over introducing state funding for elections to curb black money and illicit campaign financing remains unresolved.
Voter Participation and Representation Issues
Low Voter Turnout
Despite various voter awareness campaigns, turnout remains low in urban areas due to apathy and lack of faith in political processes.
Disenfranchisement of Migrant Workers
A significant portion of India’s workforce comprises migrant laborers who often miss voting due to the inability to return to their home constituencies.
First-Past-the-Post System (FPTP) Concerns
The FPTP system results in parties winning a majority of seats without securing a majority of votes, leading to questions about fair representation.
Electoral Bond Controversy
Lack of Transparency in Political Funding
Electoral bonds allow anonymous donations to political parties, raising concerns about corporate and foreign influence in Indian elections.
Unequal Distribution of Funds
Data indicates that ruling parties often receive a disproportionate share of funds through electoral bonds, leading to an uneven playing field.
Issues Addressed by One Nation, One Election
Key Concern
How It Is Addressed by One Nation, One Election
Election Expenditure
Reduces frequent elections, cutting down campaign costs for parties and the government by minimizing repeated spending.
Judicial Delays in Electoral Disputes
Fewer elections mean fewer disputes, allowing courts to resolve cases faster.
Autonomy of the Election Commission
Lightens the ECI’s workload, making election management more efficient and reducing political pressure.
Low Voter Turnout
Makes elections a major event, reducing voter fatigue and encouraging higher participation.
One Nation, One Election may not fix problems like EVM tampering, voter list manipulation, or political criminalization, but it simplifies the election process. By reducing the frequency of polls, it ensures more stable governance and cuts down the constant political and financial strain of repeated elections.
Way forward
India’s elections are often marred by concerns over fairness, transparency, and integrity. To address these, key reforms have been proposed:
Ensuring EVM & VVPAT Accuracy – Use a scientific method to decide VVPAT-EVM matching. If a mismatch is found, conduct full verification. Totaliser machines can help prevent booth-level manipulation.
Cleaning Up Voter Rolls – Link Aadhaar with voter IDs to remove fake or duplicate entries, while ensuring privacy safeguards. Regular audits should maintain accuracy.
Regulating Election Spending – Impose a spending cap on political parties and mandate disclosure of financial assistance to candidates to prevent overspending loopholes.
Tackling Criminalization of Politics – Political parties must inform voters about candidates’ criminal records, as per Supreme Court orders. The ECI should have the authority to bar repeat offenders from contesting.
Stricter Code of Conduct – Leaders who repeatedly violate election rules should lose their Star Campaigner status. The ECI should have stronger powers to penalize parties and curb fake news and hate speech on social media.
For elections to truly be free and fair, reforms must be backed by strong laws and decisive action. While the ECI has made efforts, issues like money power, criminal candidates, and campaign violations still need urgent attention. A collaborative effort between political parties and the ECI is crucial to restoring public trust in India’s democracy.
#BACK2BASICS: Key legal provisions governing the electoral process in India
Article 324 of the Constitution – Grants the Election Commission (EC) the power of superintendence, direction, and control over elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President.
Representation of the People Act, 1950 – Governs the preparation of electoral rolls and the allocation of seats in Parliament and State Legislatures.
Representation of the People Act, 1951 – Regulates the actual conduct of elections, including provisions on qualifications, disqualifications, election offenses, and corrupt practices.
Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 – Provides rules for the registration of voters, corrections in electoral rolls, and the issuance of Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPIC).
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) – A set of guidelines issued by the EC to regulate political parties and candidates, ensuring free and fair elections, even though it lacks statutory backing.
Evolution of India’s Voting Process and the Challenges That Led to Change
India’s voting system has continuously evolved to address security concerns, improve accessibility, and enhance electoral integrity. The next phase will likely focus on making voting more inclusive through remote and digital innovations while balancing security challenges.
Phase
Key Developments
Challenges That Led to Change
Ballot Box System (1952-1957)
Separate ballot boxes for each candidate. Voters dropped blank papers in the box of their chosen candidate.
High chances of booth capturing, ballot stuffing, and slow counting. Example: Reports of ballot box snatching in Bihar and UP.
Printed Ballot Papers (1962 Onwards)
Introduction of a single ballot paper with all candidates’ names and symbols. Voters marked their choice and dropped it in a common ballot box.
Reduced confusion but still prone to rigging, invalid votes, and long counting time. Example: 1990s saw large-scale fake voting in some states.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) (2004 Onwards)
Full transition to EVMs in all constituencies, ensuring quicker, tamper-proof voting.
Allegations of hacking, distrust among political parties, and demands for a physical verification method. Example: 2009 elections faced political controversy over EVM reliability.
Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) (2019 Onwards)
EVMs linked to VVPAT for voter verification; slip visible for a few seconds before being sealed.
Increased transparency but caused delays in verification and counting. Example: Opposition demanded 100% cross-checking of VVPAT slips in 2019 elections.
Remote Voting and Digital Advancements (Proposed)
Exploring remote voting for migrant workers and blockchain-based systems for secure digital voting.
Concerns over cybersecurity, voter authentication, and accessibility. Example: Ensuring fair voting rights for 300 million internal migrants.
Discuss the evolution of India’s electoral process from the ballot box system to the proposed digital advancements. Analyze how each phase addressed electoral challenges and the new concerns that emerged. (250 words)
Microtheme: Elections
Demand: Discuss key phases, how each addressed challenges, and analyze emerging concerns.
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