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  • The jurisdiction of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) regarding lodging an FIR and conducting probe within a particular State is being questioned by various States. However, the power of the States to withhold consent to the CBI is not absolute. Explain with special reference to the federal character of India.

    The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), established under the Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) Act, 1946, is India’s premier investigating agency. It has become the issue of confrontational federalism in recent years.

    Legal Framework of CBI’s Jurisdiction

    Section 6 of DSPE Act – CBI requires State consent to investigate cases within that State

    General Consent – blanket permission for all cases (most States provide this).

    Case-specific Consent – given on a case-to-case basis if general consent is withdrawn.

    States’ Power to Withhold Consent

    Police and Public order is a State List subject, Entry 2, List II.

    Several States (e.g., West Bengal, Kerala, Chhattisgarh, Punjab) have withdrawn general consent citing political misuse.

    However, States’ Power is Not Absolute

    Court’s Power –

    The Supreme Court and High Courts can direct the CBI to investigate without State consent under Articles 32 and 226. (State of West Bengal v. Committee for Protection of Democratic Rights (2010))

    Union Territories – CBI can operate without State consent in UTs.

    Inter-State and National Interest Cases – Involving corruption, national security, or cross-border crimes, Union may justify CBI probe to preserve national integrity.

    The Supreme Court ruled that the CBI can probe Central officials under Central laws without State consent.

    Impact on Federal Character of India

    Positive Aspects

    Judicial oversight – SC/HC powers to direct CBI investigations prevent misuse of State autonomy.

    Enables impartial probes in crimes affecting multiple States.

    National interest protection – accountability in cases threatening unity, security, or economy.

    Negative Aspects

    CBI entry without consent undermines State authority.

    Politicisation fears – Opposition-ruled States view CBI as a tool of the Centre

    SC criticized the CBI as a “caged parrot speaking in its master’s voice.” (Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL) Case)

    Weakens cooperative federalism – Tensions between WB Govt and Centre

    Reinforces the unitary bias of the Constitution, reducing States to subordinate entities in criminal investigation matters.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Autonomy – Implement Vineet Narain (1997) directives (“CVC-supervised model”).

    Statutory Backing – Replace DSPE Act, 1946 with a clear modern CBI law.

    Consultative Federalism – Respect States’ consent; use Inter-State Council for dialogue.

    Joint Collaboration – Form Centre-State task forces for investigation

    The need of the hour is strengthening institutional independence of CBI , and fostering cooperative federalism.

  • Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analyzing their structural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures.

    NHRC is a statutory body, established under the Protection of Human Rights act 1993. It is established in conformity with Paris Principles 1991.

    Role Played by Human Rights Commissions in India

    Protection of Life and Liberty- Eg- NHRC intervention in Manipur fake encounter cases (2013) led to a Supreme Court-monitored CBI probe.

    Ensuring Accountability of State Machinery- Eg- NHRC recommended Rs. 10 lakh compensation to victims of the Hashimpura massacre (2015).

    Protection of Vulnerable Groups- Eg- NHRC’s recommendations against bonded labour led to several state-level rehabilitation programmes.

    Monitoring Custodial and Institutional Conditions- Eg- NHRC report on Muzaffarpur shelter home (2018) exposed severe human rights violations.

    Promoting Human Rights Awareness through training programmes, seminars, and media campaigns

    Policy and Legal Reforms- Eg- NHRC’s recommendations on prevention of manual scavenging and rehabilitation.

    Addressing Emerging Human Rights Issues – Eg- NHRC issued advisories on migrant workers’ rights during COVID-19 lockdown (2020).

    Collaboration with International and National Agencies – Eg- India’s Universal Periodic Review (UPR) reports before the UNHRC.

    Issues Associated with NHRC

    Statutory Limitations on Jurisdiction – NHRC cannot take up cases older than one year or matters pending before a court (sub judice).

    Cases involving military personnel often fall outside the NHRC’s purview

    The NHRC lacks the authority to punish violators, cannot directly impose penalties or award relief to victims.

    Observations by the Sub-Committee on Accreditation (SCA) of GANHRI

    Lack of Diversity – Only 95 out of 393 staff positions are held by women, violating the Paris Principles requirement of pluralism and representativeness.

    Government-Dominated Selection Committee curbs opposition input and reduces transparency in selection.

    Weak Investigation Mechanism – NHRC depends on police and government officials on deputation for investigation.

    Limited Engagement with Civil Society

    Additional Institutional Challenges

    Vacancies and Delays in appointments reduce capacity and response efficiency.

    Financial Dependence- Budgetary allocations come through the Ministry of Home Affairs, affecting autonomy.

    Poor Implementation of Recommendations- NHRC recommendations are advisory, often ignored or delayed by governments.

    Backlogs- Growing pendency of complaints due to limited staff and rising caseloads.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Legal Powers- Amend the 1993 Act to make NHRC/SHRC recommendations legally binding.

    Independent Investigation Wing- Establish a separate cadre of trained human rights investigators.

    Expand Jurisdiction- Review restrictions on cases involving armed forces and paramilitary personnel.

    Financial Autonomy- Provide independent budgetary control, like constitutional bodies (e.g., EC, CAG).

    Empower State Commissions- Strengthen SHRCs through funding and capacity-building support.

    Enhance Awareness- Conduct public education campaigns with NGOs and media support.

    Regular Review Mechanism- Form a National Human Rights Coordination Council to monitor and evaluate performance.

    The 3R approach of Reform, Reorientation and Restructuring can enhance functioning of NHRC as an effective Bulwark Of Democracy in India.

  • Analyze the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.

    Equality implies that all individuals are treated without discrimination and enjoy equal access to rights, opportunities, and justice under the law.

    It has two forms:

    Formal Equality: Equal treatment under law.

    Substantive Equality: Corrective measures to achieve real equality.

    The US Constitution upholds formal legal equality, whereas the Indian Constitution advances substantive and transformative equality

    Similar Constitutional Foundations

    Both uphold equality as a constitutional guarantee and cornerstone of democracy.

    The US Constitution (14th Amendment, 1868) ensures equal protection of the laws.

    Indian Constitution (Articles 14-18) guarantees equality before law and prohibition of discrimination.

    Both enable judicial enforcement through independent courts ensuring constitutional supremacy.

    Distinguishing Features of Equality

    Both India and the USA uphold equality as a democratic ideal and Basic Feature of the constitution.

  • Explain the constitutional provisions under which Legislative Councils are established. Review the working and current status of Legislative Councils with suitable illustrations.

    Legislative Councils (Vidhan Parishads) are the upper chambers in certain states, designed to act as a revisory and deliberative body.

    Constitutional Provisions

    Article 168 – Provides for a bicameral legislature (Governor, Assembly, and Council) in few states.

    Article 169 – Parliament may create or abolish a Council by law if the State Assembly passes a resolution by special majority.

    Article 171 – Defines composition–

    1/3 elected by MLAs,

    1/3 by local bodies,

    1/12 by teachers,

    1/12 by graduates,

    1/6 nominated by Governor (eminent persons).

    Article 172(2) – Council is a permanent body, one-third retiring every two years.

    Article 182-184 – Deal with Chairman, Deputy Chairman, and conduct of business.

    Current Status

    Six states currently have Legislative Councils- UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh.

    Previously existed in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Punjab, J&K but later abolished.

    Working and Role

    Deliberative Function- Reviews legislation. Eg- Andhra Pradesh Council played a pivotal role in the Land Titling Bill (2023).

    Representative Function- Includes teachers, graduates, and professionals – ensuring diversity in law-making.

    Check on Hasty Legislation- Provides a “cooling chamber” function to prevent rushed or populist law-making by the Assembly.

    Continuity- Being a permanent house, ensures governance continuity even when the Assembly dissolves.

    Serves as a forum for experienced legislators and experts to contribute to policymaking, even if not elected directly.

    Challenges

    Limited Powers- Can delay ordinary bills for 4 months and money bills for 14 days, but cannot veto.

    Political Patronage- Used to accommodate defeated leaders.

    Low Productivity- Weak participation and debate quality in several states.

    Financial Burden- Maintenance cost often exceeds functional utility.

    Unequal Representation- Teacher and graduate constituencies have low turnout and poor inclusivity.

    Way Forward

    Reform Composition- Include women, professionals, civil society members.

    Define Role Clearly- Give Councils specific review and policy oversight functions.

    Regular Evaluation- Periodic performance audits to justify continuance.

    Curb Political Misuse- Transparent nomination and election process.

    Legislative Councils reflect India’s deliberative democratic ethos. With reforms, they can evolve from political parking spaces into effective revisory institutions upholding constitutionalism.

    Judiciary

  • Do Department-related Parliamentary Standing Committees keep the administration on its toes and inspire reverence for parliamentary control? Evaluate the working of such committees with suitable examples.

    According to LS speaker Om Birla, Parliamentary Committees are the “backbone of parliamentary democracy. The DRSCs, introduced in 1993, are vital to ensure continuous and informed Parliamentary control over executive.

    Composition

    Total 24 DRSCs- 16 under LS and 8 under RS.

    31 Members – 21 from Lok Sabha and 10 from Rajya Sabha

    Chairperson- Appointed by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha

    Tenure- nominated annually

    Role and Contribution of DRSCs

    Detailed Legislative Scrutiny – examine Bills clause by clause, preventing hasty or poorly drafted laws. Eg The IT Committee (2019) proposed key revisions to the Personal Data Protection Bill.

    Financial Oversight – scrutinise Demands for Grants and expenditure trends of ministries, ensuring fiscal prudence.

    Policy Review and Evaluation – Assess the performance of ministries and flagship schemes, suggesting reforms for better outcomes.

    Expert Consultation – Invite domain experts, civil society, and industry to facilitate evidence-based policymaking.

    Non-Partisan Deliberation – Function as bipartisan forums that foster cooperation beyond party lines.

    Continuous Oversight – Operate throughout the year, ensuring sustained monitoring even when Parliament is not in session.

    Transparency and Accountability – Their reports promote executive accountability and strengthen parliamentary control over administration.

    Knowledge Enhancement – Equip MPs with technical and subject expertise, improving legislative quality and policy insight.

    Issues-

    Transparency Concerns- Meetings held behind closed doors, with no published minutes.

    Non-binding Recommendations allow bypassing of detailed bill scrutiny.

    Limited Research Support limits committee’s ability to conduct thorough analysis and research.

    Selective Referral of Bills- During the term of 17th Lok Sabha, 19% of reports by DRSCs were on subjects other than Bills and budgets.

    One-year tenure provides limited time for members to specialize in specific areas, impacting scrutiny depth.

    Weak attendance of MPs and handling multiple ministries burdens the committee, hindering effective scrutiny and functioning.

    Way Forward-

    The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002) recommended providing dedicated research support to committees.

    Establish a dedicated research cell for each DRSC, similar to the Congressional Research Service (CRS) in the US.

    Mandatory Response from Government within a fixed timeline (e.g., 3 months) to DRSC recommendations.

    Ensure Transparency- A “Committee Action Report” should be tabled in Parliament detailing the status of recommendations.

    The DRSCs remain crucial instruments of accountability, ensuring executive discipline and informed lawmaking.

  • “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.(150 words)

    The Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 38, 39, 42, and 47) mandate the State to ensure the health and well-being of all citizens.

    Moral Imperative of the Welfare State

    Right to Health forms part of Article 21 (Right to Life)

    Ensuring accessible, affordable, and equitable healthcare upholds social justice and human dignity.

    Primary healthcare represents state accountability towards vulnerable groups, fulfilling the ethos of “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.”

    Reduces out of pocket expenditure and vicious cycle of poverty

    Primary Health as a Precondition for Sustainable Development

    SDG-3 emphasizes ensuring healthy lives and well-being for all.

    Social Development – Reduces disease burden, enhances productivity, and improves quality of life. Eg- Reduction in IMR (24) and MMR (97)

    Economic Development – World Bank (2023):

    Strong primary healthcare ensures better productivity, improved livelihoods, and universal healthcare access.

    Institutional Sustainability – Strengthens local governance and community participation in health planning. Eg- ASHA workers

    Supported by the Astana Declaration and National Health Policy 2017, which envisions comprehensive and affordable healthcare.

    Key Challenges

    India spends only 1.9% of GDP on healthcare (Economic Survey 2024), far below the WHO’s recommendation of 2.5%.

    Overemphasis on tertiary care- only 15% of public funds go to primary care

    Human resource shortage: Shortfall of 76% doctors at PHCs (RHS 2023).

    Urban-Rural Disparities (Spatial Inequity) – only 33% of doctors and 25% of hospital beds in rural areas.

    Way Forward

    Increase Public Health Expenditure to 2.5% of GDP as per National Health Policy 2017.

    Decentralize Planning and Monitoring via Panchayati Raj Institutions. (Kerala Model)

    Strengthen ASHAs, ANMs, and geriatric caregivers at village level.

    Use of telemedicine (eSanjeevani) and digital records for continuum of care.

    Strong primary and preventive healthcare is essential to achieve equitable and sustainable development and achieve Viksit Bharat @2047.

  • “Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” Comment. (150 words)

    India’s demographic dividend can be fully realized only through quality skill development. The scheme provides students opportunities for on-the-job training and financial independence.

    Significance of the Scheme

    Bridging Education-Employment Gap: (55% employability)

    Promoting Financial Inclusion: Encourages economically weaker students to continue education.

    Industry-Ready Workforce: Provides hands-on skills needed for job readiness and entrepreneurship.

    Encouraging Dignity of Labour: Changes social perception towards blue-collar jobs.

    Education – College drop-out rates can come down.

    Exposure and experience- To their subject and field.

    Inculcate soft skills, business acumen in students.

    Challenges in Implementation

    Limited Industry – academia Linkages

    Vocational education is often treated as inferior to mainstream courses.

    Lack of Standardization: Weak alignment with National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF).

    Funding Constraints: Poor financial incentives for students and industries to participate.

    Monitoring and Quality Issues: Weak oversight of apprenticeships and training outcomes.

    Gender Disparities due to mobility constraints, safety concerns, and societal norms

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Industry-Academia Linkages: Implement the Dual System of Training (DST) as in Germany.

    Integrate with PMKVY and National Skill Development Mission for convergence.

    Incentivize Employers: Tax benefits and recognition for industries providing apprenticeship.

    Embed Life Skills & Entrepreneurship Training to enhance employability.

    The ‘Earn While You Learn’ model embodies the vision of NEP 2020 and SDG-4 by promoting skill-based, inclusive education. “Skilling is building a better India. ” – PM Narendra Modi

  • Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples.

    Microfinance, channelled through women-led SHGs, offers a transformative pathway by enhancing economic agency, social empowerment, and nutritional security.

    The Vicious Cycle

    Gender Inequality – Women’s lack of access to education, income, and decision-making.

    Poverty – Limited income and savings reduce food security and healthcare access.

    Malnutrition – Poor maternal nutrition and child health perpetuate intergenerational poverty.

    How Microfinance via Women SHGs Breaks the Cycle

    Economic Empowerment Reduces Poverty

    Access to Collateral-Free Credit: Enables women to invest in productive activities (livestock, handicrafts, food processing).

    Eg- Jeevika (Bihar) lifted over 1 crore women from subsistence to sustainable livelihoods, raising family incomes by 30%.

    Financial Inclusion Strengthens Decision-Making

    SHGs enhance financial literacy, savings, and bargaining power in households. Eg- Kudumbashree (Kerala) – women’s collective income used for improved household nutrition and sanitation.

    Social Capital – SHGs build trust, networks, and solidarity, empowering women to demand better services (PDS, ICDS, health).

    Women’s Role in Nutrition and Food Security

    Empowered women spend up to 90% of income on family well-being (UNDP).

    SHG-linked programs like Poshan Sakhi (NRLM) and Livelihood Mission Nutrition Gardens promote dietary diversity.

    Reducing Gender Inequality through Economic Agency – Women gain voice and mobility, shifting from dependents to decision-makers. Eg- Lakhpati Didi initiative (2023) targets 2 crore women

    Challenges

    High Interest Rates: MFIs often charge 20-24%, burdening the poor.

    “Missing Middle” finance trap – they outgrow microcredit but cannot access medium-scale loans.

    Regional Imbalance: Concentration of SHGs in southern states (71%); weak in the north and northeast.

    Limited Market Access: Lack of integration with value chains and formal markets.

    Poor Financial Management – Irregular bookkeeping, misappropriation of funds, and lack of audit systems result in low creditworthiness.

    Patriarchal Resistance – In many regions, especially in North India, SHGs are viewed as token collectives rather than serious economic actors.

    Way Forward

    Develop Market Linkages: Integrate SHGs with ONDC, GeM, and e-NAM for fair pricing and wider market access.

    Interest Subvention and Credit Expansion: Strengthen access to MUDRA, PMEGP, and Stand-Up India for low-interest enterprise loans.

    Regional Diversification: Replicate best practices from Kudumbashree and Jeevika in less-developed regions.

    Social Empowerment Convergence: Link SHGs with Poshan Abhiyaan, PMAY-G, and Ujjwala Yojana for holistic welfare outcomes.

    Monitoring and Transparency: Use digital dashboards under DAY-NRLM to track financial performance and social outcomes.

    SHGs can help shift beneficiary-based welfare to participatory empowerment, aligning with the vision of Nari Shakti & SDG 5.

    .

  • “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

    Africa is emerging as the next frontier of global growth, driven by its demography, market, and natural resources.

    Asia’s Growth Story

    Asia’s share in global GDP rose from 25% (1990) to 45% (2024)

    Intra-Asian trade accounts for 60% of total exports (ADB, 2024).

    Demographic Dividend- Asia houses 60% of global population; India’s median age – 28 years

    Technological Hubs- India’s IT sector, China’s manufacturing, and ASEAN’s digital economies.

    Regional Platforms- Success of ASEAN, RCEP, and ADB

    Why the Next Few Decades Could Belong to Africa

    Demographic Potential- Africa to host 25% of global population by 2050, with the youngest median age (19 years).

    Resource Abundance- Rich reserves of critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, platinum) vital for energy transition.

    Economic Growth- Sub-Saharan Africa projected to grow at 4.0% annually (IMF, 2024-2030) – led by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia.

    Regional Integration- African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) connects 1.3 billion people across 54 nations.

    Digital Leapfrogging- Africa’s fintech sector expanding by 30% CAGR, supported by Indian investments in Airtel Africa and UPI collaborations.

    India’s Influence in Africa- Examination

    Way Forward

    Develop an integrated “India-Africa Strategy 2030”

    Expand Diplomatic Footprint – increase frequency of high-level summits and ministerial dialogues

    Capacity Building 2.0- Expand ITEC 2.0 for emerging fields like AI, climate tech, and fintech.

    As PM Modi said at IAFS 2015, “Our partnership is beyond strategic – it is human-centric, empowering, and future-facing.”

  • “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of a China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

    In the words of Henry Kissinger, “The Soviet Union was a military threat, China is a civilizational challenge.”

    Limitations of Challenges from erstwhile Soviet Union

    Primarily Military and Ideological – Eg- communism and Cuban Missile Crisis

    Limited economic challenges – contributing less than 10% to global GDP.

    The USSR lagged behind in high-tech industries, focusing mainly on defense and space.

    Limited soft power compared to the USA. Eg- Hollywood

    The Soviet threat was largely European and nuclear, with limited maritime reach in Indo-Pacific

    However, Chinese threat is Existential as

    Geopolitical Dimension

    China projects an alternative governance and development model of authoritarian capitalism

    Indo-Pacific expansion- Strategic assertion in South China Sea, Taiwan Strait, and Indian Ocean directly contests US-led regional order. Eg- boiling frog strategy

    Geo-Economic Dimension

    Parallel institutional ecosystem- Creation of AIIB, NDB, and BRI undermines US-dominated Bretton Woods institutions.

    Integrated global economy leading to complex interdependence- 18% of world GDP, major supplier in 70% of global supply chains.

    Debt Trap diplomacy through BRI loans and surplus-deficit strategies. Eg- Sri Lanka

    Technological rivalry- Leads in AI, 5G, EVs, and green manufacturing, challenging US corporate and innovation supremacy.

    Trade imbalance- Persistent US trade deficit with China (~$350 billion).

    China’s yuan internationalisation and digital currency pilot aim to reduce dollar dominance.

    Defence and Security Dimension

    PLA modernisation (Blue Water Navy) – A2/AD (Anti-Access/Area Denial) and hypersonic capabilities, threaten US naval superiority.

    China’s growing nuclear triad and cyber warfare capacity. Eg- Huawei ban in USA

    Dual-use infrastructure- Eg- BRI ports and bases (Djibouti, Gwadar).

    Multilateralism and Institutional Order

    Global South outreach through BRICS, SCO, and G77, eroding US soft power among developing nations.

    Issue-based coalitions- Unlike USSR’s bloc politics, China uses flexible, interest-based partnerships (e.g., with EU on climate, with Russia on energy).

    Connectivity and Global Influence

    Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)- Encompasses 150+ countries, linking Asia, Africa, and Europe

    Digital Silk Road- Expands China’s control over global telecom, satellite, and internet infrastructure

    Steps Taken by USA to Counter China

    Indo-Pacific Pivot Strategy for Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)

    QUAD Revitalisation for strategic balancing

    AUKUS Pact (2021) with Australia and the UK– sharing of nuclear submarine technology.

    Trade Restrictions and Tariffs

    Friendshoring with countries like India, Vietnam for supply chain diversification

    Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF, 2022)

    Blue Dot Network (with Japan and Australia) for transparency in global infrastructure projects.

    Increasing freedom of navigation operations (FONOPs) in South China Sea

    As held by Alexander, “China will astonish the world when it rises out of slumber.” Sustained strategic competition without conflict is essential to avoid future global instability and ensure peace.

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