The Quad has launched the “Quad Critical Minerals Initiative” to secure critical mineral supplies, addressing concerns over China’s price manipulation and coercive practices.
What is the Quad Critical Minerals Initiative?
Launch: The Quad Critical Minerals Initiative was launched during the second Quad Foreign Ministers’ Meeting held in Washington, DC.
Participants: The meeting was attended by the foreign ministers of India, the United States, Australia, and Japan.
Aim: To strengthen cooperation among Quad nations on building secure and diversified critical mineral supply chains.
Strategic Objectives:
Reduced Dependency: It seeks to reduce reliance on any single country, particularly China, for the processing and refining of critical minerals.
Risk Mitigation: The Quad statement emphasized that overdependence exposes nations to economic coercion, price manipulation, and supply chain disruption.
Need for such Initiative:
Chinese Supremacy: China dominates global mineral processing, controlling over 90% of rare earth refining, and 50–70% of lithium and cobalt refining.
Reserves Leadership: China holds the largest rare earth reserves at 44 million metric tons, far ahead of countries like India (6.9 MMT) and Australia (5.7 MMT).
Strategic Investments Abroad: China has acquired key mining assets in Africa, securing access to cobalt, lithium, and other critical minerals.
Supply Chain Leverage: With its monopolistic control, China can stall the global EV, battery, and renewable energy sectors through export restrictions.
India’s Strategy on Critical Minerals:
A. National Critical Minerals Mission (NCMM)
Launch and Funding: India launched the National Critical Minerals Mission in January 2025, backed by an allocation of ₹16,300 crore.
Core Objective: The mission aims to achieve self-sufficiency in critical mineral extraction and processing, thereby reducing import dependency.
Minerals Identified: The Indian government has identified 30 critical minerals including lithium, cobalt, graphite, tin, nickel, and copper as vital for economic and energy security.
Exploration Strategy: The NCMM promotes intensive exploration within Indian territory and offshore, and pushes for a fast-tracked approval mechanism for mining projects.
Energy Transition Goal: The mission supports India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal by ensuring timely access to raw materials for clean energy systems.
B. International Cooperation – MSP and MSFN
MSP Membership: India joined the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) in June 2023, a 14-member initiative led by the United States and supported by the European Union.
Investment Facilitation: The MSP seeks to catalyse public-private investments and build shared capabilities in mining, refining, and supply chain infrastructure.
Financial Network (MSFN): India is also part of the Minerals Security Finance Network (MSFN), which focuses on co-financing strategic critical mineral projects globally.
Sourcing Diversification: Through these platforms, India is expanding its cooperation with resource-rich countries like Mozambique, Madagascar, Brazil, and Tanzania.
Significance for India:
Continued Import Dependence: Despite ongoing efforts, India remains heavily dependent on China, particularly for graphite and rare earth elements.
Long Project Timelines: A 2024 IEEFA report estimates that domestic mining operations may take over a decade to start production.
Rising Demand Pressure: India’s demand for critical minerals is expected to more than double by 2030, necessitating rapid action on exploration and supply diversification.
Need for Strategic Tie-ups: To secure future needs, India must accelerate global partnerships and develop domestic value chains from mining to processing.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III
The Ministry of Coal has launched RECLAIM Framework— A Community Engagement and Development Framework for Mine Closure and Repurposing.
About the RECLAIM Framework:
Launch: The Ministry of Coal has launched the RECLAIM framework to guide inclusive and sustainable coal mine closures in India.
Developed By: The framework was developed by the Coal Controller Organisation in collaboration with the Heartfulness Institute.
Objective: It aims to ensure a just, inclusive, and locally relevant transition for communities affected by mine closures.
Inclusivity Measures: The framework places special emphasis on gender equity, the inclusion of vulnerable groups, and alignment with Panchayati Raj Institutions to enhance accountability and relevance.
Key Features of the Framework:
Guidelines: Mine closure guidelines were introduced in 2009 and revised in 2013 and 2020 to improve environmental safety and social accountability.
Community Engagement: The framework promotes community-centric planning by actively involving local stakeholders in mine closure processes.
Equity and Representation: It prioritizes the inclusion of women and marginalized groups to ensure that benefits are distributed equitably.
Institutional Convergence: RECLAIM aligns mine closure planning with existing institutional structures, especially Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governance systems.
Phased Implementation: The framework follows three phases:
Pre-Closure: Includes needs assessments and capacity building.
Closure: Involves participatory execution of closure plans.
Post-Closure: Focuses on monitoring, livelihood restoration, and asset repurposing.
Support Tools: RECLAIM is backed by field-tested tools, templates, and methodologies tailored to the Indian mining context.
Broader Impact: It supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and can be replicated in other resource-intensive sectors and states.
Challenges in Coal Mine Closure in India:
Policy–Practice Gap: Despite guidelines issued in 2009, only three coal mines have been formally closed as of 2024.
Low Compliance: Out of 299 non-operational coal mines, only eight have applied for formal closure, while the rest remain unscientifically abandoned.
Environmental Risks: Abandoned mines lead to methane emissions, ecological degradation, increased accident risks, and illegal mining.
Community Displacement: Unsustainable mining has caused unemployment and migration, reducing community engagement during closure planning.
Land Return Issues: India lacks a clear policy for returning post-mining land to original owners or communities.
Policy Gaps in Draft Bill: The 2024 Draft Coal Bearing Areas (CBA) Amendment Bill proposes land return but lacks clarity on enforcement mechanisms.
Financial Barriers: High escrow fund requirements—₹14 lakh per hectare for opencast mines—discourage mine operators from initiating closure processes.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
The coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi.
Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis.
Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.
About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):
Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.
His Contributions:
Role in Pre-Independence Politics:
He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.
Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:
He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.
Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:
After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):
In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.
Opposition to Article 370:
Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”
Legacy:
Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:
Party: Its Leader
1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four
The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.
About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:
Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Key Features:
Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.
Breakthrough Discoveries:
First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
[UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:
Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland
Mount Lewotobi Laki Laki in eastern Indonesia has erupted violently, spreading ash up to 18 kilometers into the sky.
About Mount Lewotobi: Key Features
Overview: Mount Lewotobi is a twin volcano located in East Nusa Tenggara province, consisting of Lewotobi Laki Laki (“Male”) and Lewotobi Perempuan (“Female”).
Elevation and Activity: Lewotobi Laki Laki stands at 1,584 meters and is more frequently active. Lewotobi Perempuan is taller at 1,703 meters but less active historically.
Volcanic Type: Both mountains are stratovolcanoes, formed by successive layers of lava, ash, and volcanic debris.
Lava Domes: During the 20th century, both volcanoes developed small lava domes within their summit craters.
Magma Composition: The primary eruptive material from both volcanoes is andesite, a type of intermediate volcanic rock.
Tectonic Location: The volcanoes lie on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a seismically active belt known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Back2Basics: The Pacific Ring of Fire
Overview: The Pacific Ring of Fire is a 40,000-km-longhorseshoe-shaped zone encircling much of the Pacific Ocean, known for intense geological activity.
Volcanic Density: This region contains around 75 percent of the world’s volcanoes—more than 450 in total.
Seismic Activity: Approximately 90 percent of the world’s earthquakes occur within this zone.
Geographic Spread: It extends from New Zealand through Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan, across to the Aleutian Islands, and then down the western coasts of North and South America.
Tectonic Plates Involved: Several major tectonic platesintersect here, including the Pacific, Philippine, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates.
Subduction Zones: Much of the Ring features subduction zones, where one tectonic plate slides beneath another, generating magma and leading to volcanic eruptions.
Plate Movement: The movement of these plates is slow—typically just one to two inches per year—but it results in significant geological events over time.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3
[UPSC 2020] In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss.
Linkage: The article on maternal mortality highlights various deficiencies in healthcare delivery and infrastructure (e.g., lack of specialists, blood banks, operation theatres, and trained personnel) that contribute to maternal deaths, indicating the critical need for sound policies. This question is most directly relevant as it specifically names “maternal health care” as a crucial area for sound and adequate healthcare policies to enhance social development.
Mentor’s Comment: Despite progress, India still loses 93 mothers for every 1,00,000 births due to problems that could be prevented during childbirth. Although the number has come down from 103 (2017–19) to 93 (2019–21), there are still huge differences between states. For example, Kerala has brought the number down to 20, but in states like Madhya Pradesh (175) and Assam (167), the numbers are very high.
Today’s editorial analyses the issues related to India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Women-related Issues) and GS Paper II (Social Justice and Health) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio is going down, but some states still need to work on solving basic problems and improving their healthcare systems.
What do MMR trends reveal about regional disparities in India?
Declining National MMR: India’s MMR dropped from 103 (2017–19) to 93 (2019–21), showing slow but consistent improvement.
Kerala leads with an MMR of 20, indicating robust institutional care and maternal health awareness.
Southern States (like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh) show better performance (MMR under 50–60), while EAG States such as Madhya Pradesh (175) and Assam (167) remain critical zones.
“Other” States: Maharashtra (38) and Gujarat (53) have made notable progress, while Punjab (98) and Haryana (106) still struggle.
Why is India’s Maternal Mortality Ratio still high despite better healthcare access?
Regional Disparities in Healthcare Infrastructure: MMR is significantly higher in Empowered Action Group (EAG) states like Assam (167) and Madhya Pradesh (175), compared to Kerala (20). Eg: States like Bihar and UP face shortages in skilled staff and poor facility access, despite national programmes.
Inadequate Functioning of FRUs (First Referral Units): Many FRUs lack specialists, blood banks, and operating theatres. Over 66% of specialist posts remain vacant. Eg: In 2,856 designated FRUs, many lack anaesthetists or functional surgical units, risking lives in emergencies.
Three Delays in Maternal Care: Delays in seeking care, reaching hospitals, and receiving treatment result in avoidable deaths.
How are the three key delays contributing to maternal deaths?
Delay in Decision-Making at Home: Families often fail to recognise danger signs during pregnancy or childbirth and delay seeking medical help. Eg: A pregnant woman showing signs of excessive bleeding may not be taken to a hospital promptly due to family neglect, financial constraints, or the belief that delivery is natural.
Delay in Reaching a Healthcare Facility: Lack of timely transportation from remote or rural areas hinders access to skilled birth attendants or emergency care. Eg: A woman in a tribal village may take hours to reach a hospital due to poor roads or lack of ambulances, resulting in delivery en route.
Delay in Receiving Adequate Care at the Facility: Even after reaching a hospital, care may be delayed due to absence of doctors, operation theatres, or blood supply. Eg: A woman experiencing uterine rupture may not get immediate surgery because the anaesthetist is unavailable or the OT isn’t ready.
What are First Referral Units (FRUs)?
First Referral Units (FRUs) are designated health facilities equipped to provide comprehensive emergency obstetric and newborn care (CEmONC). These units serve as the first-level referral centres for maternal and child health emergencies, especially in rural and underserved areas.
How can FRUs be made more effective in reducing maternal deaths?
Ensure Availability of Specialist Medical Staff: FRUs must be equipped with qualified obstetricians, anaesthetists, and paediatricians to handle maternal emergencies. Eg: In many districts, over 60% vacancies in specialist posts mean pregnant women cannot access timely surgeries like C-sections, leading to avoidable deaths.
Establish Fully Functional Emergency Infrastructure: FRUs must have operational operation theatres, blood banks, and 24×7 emergency care to address complications like postpartum haemorrhage. Eg: A woman suffering massive bleeding after childbirth can be saved if a blood transfusion and surgery are available within two hours.
Strengthen Referral and Transport Systems: Ensure robust ambulance networks and clear referral protocols to reduce delays in reaching FRUs from rural or remote areas. Eg: The 108 ambulance service, when linked efficiently with FRUs, can reduce deaths caused by obstructed labour during long-distance travel.
What lessons does the Kerala model offer for reducing MMR nationwide?
Confidential Review of Maternal Deaths: Kerala uses a systematic review process to study every maternal death to identify medical and systemic gaps. Eg: Led by Dr. V.P. Paily, Kerala’s Confidential Review Committee analyses causes like hemorrhage, embolism, or surgical delay, enabling precise interventions.
High-Quality Emergency Obstetric Care: Kerala emphasizes emergency preparedness, with trained obstetricians, well-equipped operation theatres, and availability of blood banks.
Holistic Maternal Health Approach: Kerala addresses not only physical but also mental health aspects of pregnancy, like antenatal depression and postpartum psychosis.
Way forward:
Strengthen FRUs and Emergency Care Infrastructure: Ensure that all First Referral Units (FRUs) are fully staffed with specialists, equipped with blood banks, operation theatres, and essential medicines to manage obstetric emergencies swiftly.
Scale Up Kerala’s Model Nationwide: Implement confidential maternal death reviews, train healthcare personnel in advanced obstetric practices, and integrate mental health support into maternal care programs across all States.
India is seeing a worrying rise in people being forced to leave their homes due to climate change along its coasts, revealing serious gaps in how the country manages the environment and supports affected communities.
What are the socio-economic impacts of coastal climate change?
Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion, and erosion force people from traditional coastal villages to resettlement colonies. Eg: In Satabhaya, Odisha, entire villages have been submerged, displacing residents with little access to sustainable livelihoods.
Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Coastal degradation affects fishing and agriculture, disrupting long-standing economic systems. Eg: In Honnavar, Karnataka, fishing communities face livelihood loss due to mangrove destruction and tourism development.
Forced Migration to Urban Informal Sectors: Displaced people migrate to cities and enter unprotected labour markets, often in exploitative conditions. Eg: Many end up as construction or brick kiln workers in cities like Mumbai or Chennai, without labour rights.
Labour Exploitation and Gender Vulnerability: Migrants, especially women, face debt bondage, abuse, and trafficking due to informal employment and lack of legal safeguards. Eg: Displaced women entering domestic work are underpaid and vulnerable to exploitation.
Social Inequality and Lack of Legal Protection: The absence of targeted legal frameworks leads to exclusion from welfare schemes and labour protections, worsening socio-economic inequality. Eg: Existing laws like the BOCW Act, 1996, do not cover climate migrants, leaving them unprotected.
How does climate-induced displacement test India’s democratic values?
Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21): Climate displacement challenges the constitutional guarantee of life with dignity, as displaced communities often lack shelter, healthcare, and livelihood.
Denial of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (Article 19(1)(a)): Many infrastructure and tourism projects along the coast proceed without consulting local communities, violating their freedom of expression and participation in governance.
Suppression of Protest and Association (Article 19(1)(b) and 19(1)(c)): Environmental defenders and activists resisting unjust displacement face police action, surveillance, and criminalisation, undermining their freedom to protest and form associations.
Why is a legal framework for climate migrants essential?
To Recognise and Protect the Rights of the Displaced: Climate migrants often lose access to housing, work, and basic services. A legal framework ensures their right to life and dignity is upheld under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers displaced from Satabhaya, Odisha, lack legal recognition as climate migrants, preventing access to structured rehabilitation.
To Fill Gaps in Existing Laws and Policies: Current laws like the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and CRZ Notification, 2019 focus on emergency response or environmental regulation, not long-term rehabilitation or labour rights. Eg: The NAPCC identifies vulnerability but has no mechanism to integrate displaced people into labour or housing policies.
To Prevent Labour Exploitation and Ensure Social Justice: Without legal safeguards, climate migrants, especially in urban informal sectors, face wage theft, abuse, and gendered violence. Eg: Migrants working in brick kilns or as domestic workers in cities remain outside labour codes, exposing them to exploitation.
What is the role of local movements in protecting coastal communities?
Grassroots Resistance Against Destructive Projects: Local movements mobilize communities to protest against unsustainable infrastructure and industrial projects that threaten coastal ecosystems. Eg: The Save Satabhaya campaign in Odisha resisted sea-erosion-driven displacement and demanded proper rehabilitation.
Advocacy for Environmental Justice and Rights: These movements highlight environmental injustices, defend the livelihoods of traditional communities, and demand informed consent and legal protection. Eg: Pattuvam Mangrove Protection Movement.
Challenging Development Narratives and Policy Gaps: Local struggles question top-down development policies, push for sustainable alternatives, and expose policy loopholes that ignore climate and social impacts. Eg: Protests against the Adani port expansion at Ennore Creek, Tamil Nadu.
Which reforms can ensure rights-based climate migration policies? (Way forward)
Legal Recognition of Climate Migrants: Integrate climate-induced displacement into national migration and disaster policies to ensure affected individuals are officially recognized and protected under law.
Labour Code Reforms for Informal Workers: Amend existing labour laws to include climate migrants, especially those in vulnerable sectors like construction and domestic work, ensuring fair wages, social security, and workplace protections.
Participatory Coastal Zone Management: Redesign Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules to prioritize ecological sustainability and the rights of local communities, with mandatory community consent before approving commercial projects.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?
Linkage: The article highlights “rising seas, saltwater intrusion” and “coastal degradation” as impacts of climate change. This question directly relates to a key oceanic phenomenon influenced by climate change and its effect on extreme weather events like cyclones.
Women-led MSMEs are a key part of India’s economic growth, but they still remain underserved. Even though they make up 20% of all registered MSMEs, they contribute only 10% of the total income and receive disproportionate credit and lack of support.
Why do women-led MSMEs face persistent credit gaps?
Discriminatory Credit Disbursement: Women face a higher credit gap (35%) compared to men (20%), as per SIDBI reports. Eg: Despite applying for ₹10 lakhs in business loans, many women entrepreneurs receive only ₹6.5 lakhs, limiting their operational expansion.
Lack of Collateral and Property Ownership: Many women lack land or asset ownership, making it difficult to meet banks’ collateral requirements. Eg: A rural woman running a tailoring unit may not own property, so her loan request is denied despite good business potential.
Lower Financial Literacy: Many first-generation women entrepreneurs, especially in rural areas, lack awareness of financial schemes and documentation processes. Eg: Women in small towns often don’t know how to access PMMY or Stand-Up India loans, resulting in underutilisation of available credit.
Gender Bias in Credit Risk Assessment: Financial institutions often perceive women as risky borrowers, especially if they operate in informal sectors.
Overdependence on Informal Credit Sources: Due to a lack of formal access, many women rely on moneylenders, who charge high interest rates and offer no legal protection. Eg: In the absence of bank loans, women-led microenterprises may borrow from informal lenders at 24% interest, leading to debt traps.
What limits the effectiveness of schemes like PMMY?
Low Sanction-to-Application Ratio: While a high number of women open loan accounts, the actual sanctioned amount is disproportionately lower. Eg: In 2024, women held 64% of PMMY accounts, but received only 41% of the total disbursed amount, reflecting a gap in meaningful financial access.
Administrative Inefficiencies: Delays and inconsistencies in processing applications, verification, and disbursal reduce scheme impact.
Lack of Awareness: Many potential beneficiaries, especially in rural or semi-urban areas, are unaware of PMMY’s features or how to apply. Eg: Women entrepreneurs with informal businesses often fail to access collateral-free loans due to absence of facilitation from banks or local agencies.
How does low financial literacy hinder women entrepreneurs?
Inability to Navigate Formal Banking Systems: Lack of knowledge in budgeting, credit scores, or interest rates discourages women from applying for loans. Eg: First-generation entrepreneurs in rural areas avoid formal credit channels and depend on informal moneylenders with high-interest rates.
Limited Confidence in Business Decision-Making: Low financial skills reduce confidence in investment planning, profit calculation, and risk management, hampering business growth. Women running micro-enterprises often hesitate to expand operations or apply for working capital loans, fearing repayment complexities.
What is the role of the Udyam Assist Portal in women’s empowerment?
Formal Recognition of Informal Enterprises: The portal helps register Informal Micro Enterprises (IMEs), especially women-led ones, bringing them into the formal financial ecosystem. Eg: In 2024, 70.5% of IMEs registered on the portal were women-owned, enabling access to priority sector lending.
Improved Access to Formal Credit: By assigning a Udyam Registration Number, it enables collateral-free loans and better eligibility under various government credit schemes. Eg: Registered women entrepreneurs can now avail benefits under schemes like PMMY and Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises (CGTMSE).
Boost to Employment and Income Generation: The portal supports women in starting and scaling up their enterprises, thus enhancing livelihood security and job creation. Eg: Women-led IMEs contributed over 70.8% to employment generation in the informal micro-business segment.
Which reforms can improve credit access for women-led IMEs? (Way forward)
Expand Collateral-Free Credit Schemes: Widen the reach of schemes like PMMY and CGTMSE with targeted provisions for first-generation women entrepreneurs and flexible documentation norms. Eg: Lower the threshold for loan amounts and simplify eligibility for Udyam-registered IMEs.
Strengthen Financial Literacy and Credit Counselling: Launch grassroots training programmes in regional languages to raise awareness about credit products, budgeting, and digital banking. Eg: Tie-up with SHGs and local NGOs to educate women in rural and semi-urban areas.
Mandate Gender-Sensitive Banking Practices: Instruct public and private banks to set quotas for women-led MSME lending, and monitor disbursal with gender-segregated data. Eg: Introduce incentive-based targets for bank branches lending to women-run enterprises.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples.
Linkage: The article explicitly highlight the how government schemes like the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY) aim to support self-employment and financial independence for women, which aligns with microfinancing efforts. This question is highly relevant as it directly addresses the effectiveness of “microfinancing of women” as a tool for empowerment and breaking negative societal cycles.
Gathering in Rio de Janeiro on July 6–7, leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa adopted the BRICS Rio Declaration 2025 — marking a decisive shift in the bloc’s evolution.
Back2Basics: BRICS
BRICS represents a coalition of nations committed to fostering economic growth, development cooperation, and global governance reform.
The first summit in 2009 featured the founding countries of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, where they adopted the acronym BRIC and formed an informal diplomatic club.
BRICS focuses on collaboration across 3 key pillars:
Political and Security Cooperation: Ensuring peace, global stability, and governance reform.
Economic and Financial Cooperation: Promoting trade, investment, and economic resilience.
Cultural and People-to-People Cooperation: Enhancing mutual understanding and societal linkages.
Present Members of BRICS
Original Members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
Recent Additions: Indonesia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the UAE.
About the Rio Declaration (2025):
Overview: Adopted at the XVII BRICS Summit in Rio de Janeiro (July 6–7, 2025), the Rio Declaration reflects BRICS’s push for a more inclusive and multipolar global order.
Call for reform: It calls for reforms in global institutions like the UN Security Council, IMF, and World Bank to give a greater voice to the Global South.
Focus: It emphasized sovereign equality, sustainable development, digital cooperation, and solidarity among emerging economies.
Expansion: BRICS welcomed Thailand as a full member and acknowledged 10 new partner countries, including Belarus, Nigeria, Cuba, and Vietnam, signalling broader representation.
Key Highlights of the Declaration:
Global Reform Push: Demands reform of UN, IMF, Bretton Woods institutions for fairer representation of emerging economies.
Climate Finance: Endorses Brazil’s Tropical Forests Forever Facility and calls on developed nations to fund just transitions.
AI Governance: Supports a global framework aligned with national rules and UN Charter principles.
Health Equity: Launched BRICS Partnership on Socially Determined Diseases to address poverty-linked health disparities.
Economic Sovereignty: Push for local currency trade, non-dollar payment systems, and strengthening the New Development Bank.
Security Commitment: Zero tolerance for terrorism, including cross-border support and financing.
Digital Inclusion: Focus on women’s digital access, AI cooperation, and green technologies.
India’s Role: Led initiatives on science collaboration, digital public goods, and proposed reforms for 2026 BRICS leadership.
[UPSC 2015] The ‘Fortaleza Declaration’, recently in the news, is related to the affairs of:
The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has busted a global drug network spanning four continents through secret Operation Med Max.
Back2Basics: Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)
Institutional Mandate: The NCB is India’s central drug law enforcement and intelligence agency, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Establishment: It was established on 14th November 1985 under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
Role: The agency works closely with Customs, State Police, Intelligence Bureau, and international agencies like Interpol and the US DEA.
International Treaty Compliance: NCB is responsible for monitoring India’s compliance with global drug control conventions and facilitating cooperation with foreign drug enforcement bodies.
Operational Network: It maintains zonal offices nationwide and is staffed by officers from IPS, IRS, paramilitary forces, and direct recruits.
Financial Surveillance Role: The NCB is a member of the Economic Intelligence Council, reflecting its role in tracking financial transactions linked to drug crimes.
Digital Intelligence Focus: The agency is now expanding into cyber surveillance, targeting darknet networks, crypto-based payments, and online narcotics trade.
About Operation Med Max:
Launch: It was initiated by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) in May 2024, beginning with the interception of a car in Delhi, it seized 3.7 kg of Tramadol tablets.
Uncovering a Global Syndicate: Investigations revealed a transnational drug syndicate using encrypted apps, drop shipping, and cryptocurrency payments to smuggle controlled pharmaceutical drugs across four continents and over 10 countries.
Global Ramifications: The probe triggered international enforcement actions, including the arrest of a money launderer in Alabama (USA), closure of an illegal pill factory in Australia, and identification of a UAE-based drug kingpin.
Also in News: Operation MELON
Overview: It was a coordinated crackdown on India’s top-rated darknet drug vendor, alias “Ketamelon”, active for over two years.
Drug and Crypto Seizures: The raid led to the seizure of 1,100 LSD blots, 131 grams of Ketamine, and ₹70 lakh worth of cryptocurrency, stored in a hardware wallet.
Darknet Threat: Ketamelon was classified as a Level 4 darknet vendor, the highest possible rank, underscoring the growing cyber-narcotics threat and NCB’s technical capacity to counter it.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:
1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft
2. Monitoring of precipitation
3. Tracking the migration of animals
In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None
As of 2024–25, India’s “invisibles” trade—comprising services exports and private money transfers—has not only surpassed its merchandise exports but also emerged as a key stabiliser of the current account deficit.
What are Invisible Exports (in India’s context)?
What is it: Invisible exports refer to international trade in services and income flows that do not involve physical goods crossing borders. These transactions are digital or financial, rather than visible at ports or airports.
Types of Services Included: They comprise a wide range of service-based exports such as IT services, financial consulting, legal and accounting services, R&D, and BPO operations.
Inclusion of Remittances: Private remittances—money sent home by Indians working abroad—are counted as part of invisibles in India’s Balance of Payments (BoP).
BoP Classification: These transactions are recorded under the “Current Account” of the BoP, specifically in the sub-categories of services, primary income, and secondary income.
Characteristics: Unlike physical exports, invisible exports do not require shipping, face fewer trade barriers, and rely heavily on skilled human capital.
Leading Examples: India’s key invisible exports include software and IT-enabled services (by firms like Infosys, TCS, Wipro), Global Capability Centers, financial and legal services, and education, tourism, and medical services.
Role of Migrant Remittances: Remittances from NRIs and migrant workers play a crucial role and are one of the largest components of India’s invisible receipts.
Their Contribution in Trade
Higher Value than Goods Exports: In 2024–25, India’s gross invisible receipts reached $576.5 billion, surpassing merchandise exports of $441.8 billion. Services alone brought in $387.5 billion, a major leap from $26.9 billion in 2003–04, while remittances added $135.4 billion.
Buffer Against Trade Deficits: While the merchandise trade deficit stood at $287.2 billion, a net invisible surplus of $263.8 billion helped reduce the overall current account deficit to just $23.4 billion, providing crucial stability.
Resilience Across Global Crises: Invisible exports remained strong during major disruptions like the 2008 financial crisis, COVID-19 pandemic, and ongoing geopolitical tensions, showcasing greater resilience than merchandise trade.
Human Capital-Driven Growth: Services exports are powered by India’s skilled workforce, not physical infrastructure. India thrives as the “office of the world”, moving beyond the traditional “back office” label.
Less Policy Dependence: Growth in invisible exports occurred largely without heavy government incentives or trade agreements. India still lacks strong service-sector provisions in its major trade deals.
[UPSC 2006] Assertion (A): Balance of Payments represents a better picture of a country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world than the Balance of Trade.
Reason (R): Balance of Payments takes into account the exchange of both visible and invisible items whereas Balance of Trade does not.
Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A ** (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
Japan has recorded over 1,000 tremors in two weeks near the Tokara Islands, signalling a surge in seismic activity.
Why is Japan so prone to earthquakes?
Tectonic Plate Convergence: Japan lies at the junction of four major tectonic plates—the Pacific, Philippine Sea, Eurasian, and North American—which constantly collide and shift.
Subduction Zones: Oceanic plates (Pacific and Philippine Sea) are being pushed under continental plates, creating intense geological stress that is released as earthquakes.
Pacific Ring of Fire: Japan is part of this highly active seismic zone that surrounds the Pacific Ocean and accounts for about 90% of the world’s earthquakes.
Volcanic and Fault Line Density: The country has about 10% of the world’s active volcanoes and numerous fault lines, increasing its seismic vulnerability.
AboutTokara Islands:
Overview: They are a small volcanic island chain in the Ryukyu archipelago, forming part of Kagoshima Prefecture in southern Japan:
Geographical Location: Between Kyushu and the Amami Islands, in the East China Sea.
Composition: Includes 12 islands, of which 7 are inhabited, such as Nakanoshima, Takarajima, and Kodakarajima.
Volcanic Origin: Part of the Ryukyu Arc, a highly seismically active zone. Mount Otake, an active volcano, is located on Nakanoshima.
Geopolitical Relevance: The islands are gaining strategic significance due to rising tensions in the East China Sea, particularly involving China and Taiwan. Recent defense policies have called for fortification of the Tokara and Nansei Islands to enhance surveillance.
[UPSC 2008] In the year 2007, an earthquake led to massive radioactive water leakage in the largest nuclear plant in the world. In which country did it occur?
Options: (a) Germany (b) Canada (c) Japan* (d) USA
As language debates rise in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the historic Nagari Pracharini Sabha, key to promoting Hindi and Devanagari, quietly resumed its work after decades.
Hindi Under the British: A Language in Waiting
Until the late 19th century, Persian remained the court language in much of India. Even by 1861, courts in North-Western Provinces and Oudh still used English, Persian, and Urdu.
Hindi struggled to assert itself due to a lack of standardised vocabulary and administrative acceptance.
British official Antony MacDonnell began promoting Devanagari over Persian script in the 1890s.
On July 14, 1888, Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh of Darbhanga adopted Hindi as the official language in his region, influenced by the slogan “Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan.”
About Nagari Pracharini Sabha:
Establishment: The Nagari Pracharini Sabha was founded on 16 July 1893 at Queen’s College, Varanasi by Shyamsundar Das, Pandit Ramnarayan Mishra, and Shivkumar Singh.
Early Patronage: The Sabha received initial support from Babu Radhakrishna Das, a cousin of Bharatendu Harishchandra, a leading figure in modern Hindi literature.
Organizational Presence: Its headquarters are located in Varanasi, with additional branches in New Delhi and Haridwar.
Primary Mission: The Sabha aimed to promote the Hindi language and Devanagari script in education, administration, and literature during a period dominated by Persian, Urdu, and English.
Library Establishment: In 1896, it established the Arya Bhasha Pustakalaya, which became the largest Hindi library in India.
Research Journal Launch: Also in 1896, it began publishing the Nagari Pracharini Patrika, now recognized as India’s oldest and most authoritative Hindi research journal.
Cultural Contributions: It managed the Bharat Kala Bhavan museum, until it was eventually transferred to Banaras Hindu University.
Modern Revival: After years of inactivity and disputes, it was revived in 2023 under Vyomesh Shukla’s leadership, following a court order from the Allahabad High Court.
Its Role in Hindi Promotion:
Linguistic Standardization: It conducted surveys in rural and urban areas to collect regional vocabulary, laying the groundwork for a standardized Hindi language.
Lexicographic Landmark: This effort led to the publication of Shabd Sagar in 1929, a monumental 11-volume Hindi dictionary and a major lexicographical achievement.
Literary Influence: It published Saraswati magazine from 1900, edited by Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, which played a transformative role in shaping modern Hindi literature.
Preservation of Classics: It produced critical editions of works by poets like Surdas, Tulsidas, Kabirdas, Bihari, and Bhushan, ensuring the preservation of Hindi literary heritage.
Official Language Recognition: The Sabha’s advocacy led to the recognition of Hindi in Devanagari script for official use in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh by the early 20th century.
Civil Service Policy Impact: It was instrumental in making Hindi and Urdu proficiency a requirement for government jobs in the United Provinces.
National Literary Conferences: In 1910, it helped organise the first Akhil Bharatiya Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, giving Hindi a pan-Indian literary platform.
Support from National Leaders: The Sabha’s mission was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Motilal Nehru, indicating its central role in the Hindi movement.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. 21st February is declared to be the International Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
2. The demand that Bangla be one of the national languages was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.
Linkage: The Article state that China’s traditional strategy involves “building up Pakistan’s strategic and conventional capabilities through overt and covert help to counter India and keep it off-balance”. This question directly relates to the “China-Pakistan nexus” by focusing on the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
Mentor’s Comment: The Indian Army has officially confirmed what experts had long suspected, China directly helped Pakistan during Operation Sindoor (May 7–10), marking a major change in their military relationship. For the first time, China supported Pakistan in battle by sharing real-time surveillance data, using advanced weapons together, and spreading information online — all without openly escalating the conflict. This has turned the idea of a “two-front war” into a “one-front reinforced” war, where China backs Pakistan more closely in a real conflict. China’s support included high-tech weapons, cyber tools, and diplomatic moves at the UN, while avoiding any clear criticism of the Pahalgam terror attack. The use of Chinese-made fighter jets, drones, and air defence systems by Pakistan during the fighting is a game-changer and means India needs to rethink its defence strategy.
Today’s editorial analyses the China-Pakistan military collusion and its impact. This topic is important for GS Paper II (International Relations) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The new “one-front reinforced” threat is now real, not just an idea. India must now rethink how it defends itself, update its military equipment, and clearly show its strength to others.
What are the strategic implications of China-Pakistan military collusion for India’s security?
Increased Security Threat from a “One-Front Reinforced War”: A conflict with Pakistan now includes covert Chinese support, transforming it into a hybrid front rather than a standalone battle. India must prepare for simultaneous pressure on both borders, diluting its strategic flexibility. Eg: During Operation Sindoor (May 2025), China provided real-time ISR support and surveillance data to Pakistan.
Enhanced Pakistani Military Capabilities via Chinese Technology: Pakistan’s use of advanced Chinese weapons systems improves its operational effectiveness and battlefield confidence. This deepens strategic asymmetry and reduces India’s military advantage. Eg: Pakistan deployed Chinese J-10C fighters and HQ-9 air defence systems, guided by China’s BeiDou satellites, during active operations.
Erosion of India’s Strategic Autonomy and Deterrence: Collusion undermines India’s ability to execute punitive strikes without risking escalation or Chinese interference. India must now calibrate its response to avoid wider regional destabilisation. Eg: China blocked India’s diplomatic push at the UNSC post-Pahalgam attack and echoed Pakistan’s narrative, limiting India’s international manoeuvring space.
How has China’s role in India-Pakistan conflicts evolved over time?
From Passive Diplomatic Support to Active Collusion: In earlier conflicts (1965, 1971, Kargil 1999), China offered only diplomatic or symbolic support to Pakistan without direct involvement. Now, China is actively enhancing Pakistan’s battlefield capabilities through technology and real-time support. Eg: In Operation Sindoor (2025).
Use of Advanced Defence and ISR Systems: China has moved from supplying basic military hardware to enabling operational interoperability and network-centric warfare. Chinese platforms are now tactically integrated into Pakistan’s military exercises and combat. Eg: Deployment of Chinese J-10C fighters, PL-15 missiles, and BeiDou navigation for missile guidance shows deeper integration.
Strategic Messaging and Digital Warfare Support: China now also supports Pakistan via propaganda, perception warfare, and digital influence operations. It helps shape global narratives and reduces diplomatic pressure on Pakistan. Eg: Chinese media amplified Pakistan’s ISPR propaganda during Operation Sindoor and resisted India’s push at the UNSC, aligning with Pakistan’s narrative.
What is a “One-Front Reinforced War”?
A “one-front reinforced war” refers to a conflict scenario where India fights on one primary front (e.g., against Pakistan), but this front is reinforced by active support from another adversary (e.g., China) without that second adversary being officially at war.
Why is the “one-front reinforced war” concept critical for India’s defence strategy?
Unified Threat Vector: The China-Pakistan collusion has created a combined strategic front, making it harder for India to manage threats separately.
Reduced Response Window: India faces a compressed decision-making timeline and resource overstretch, requiring faster and more coordinated defence responses. Eg: Despite the 2024 Ladakh disengagement, large Indian deployments are still needed on both the LAC and LoC.
Need for Capability Boost: The “one-front” scenario highlights the urgency to upgrade conventional deterrence, invest in modern warfare tech, and adapt military doctrine. Eg: Pakistan acquiring Chinese J-35 stealth jets, KJ-500 AEW&C, and HQ-19 missile defence systems intensifies pressure on India to respond.
How should India respond to rising two-front challenges amid declining defence spending?
Increase Defence Allocation and Modernise Capabilities: India must reverse the decline in defence expenditure (from 17.1% of central spending in 2014-15 to 13% in 2025-26) and invest in next-generation warfare capabilities. This includes drones, AI-enabled surveillance, cyber defence, and network-centric warfare systems.
Adopt Asymmetric and Unpredictable Response Strategies: India should avoid predictable retaliation and adopt multi-domain deterrence, including economic, cyber, and covert measures. Eg: Strategic reconsideration of agreements like the Indus Waters Treaty, economic sanctions on critical Chinese firms, or calibrated cyber operations.
Institutional and Diplomatic Realignment: India needs to bolster its international alliances and ensure seamless coordination between the armed forces, intelligence agencies, and foreign policy apparatus. Eg: Deepening defence ties with the Quad members, France, and Israel for intelligence sharing, joint exercises, and technology transfer.
Way forward:
Strengthen Integrated Defence Capabilities: India must invest in network-centric warfare, ISR systems, drone technologies, and joint-force interoperability to counter a reinforced adversary. Enhancing real-time battlefield awareness and communication across services is key.
Recalibrate Strategic and Diplomatic Posture: India should link China’s strategic collusion with Pakistan to its bilateral ties, signalling consequences for such behaviour. Simultaneously, boost alliances like QUAD, and explore unpublicised retaliatory options (e.g., Indus Waters Treaty leverage) to deter future collusion.
UPSC often asks questions from such topics in a big-picture yet anchored manner. For example, the 2024 GS2 question on India-Central Asia wasn’t just about bilateral ties—it demanded a mix of regional strategy, economic engagement, and global relevance. Topics like IORA and the Indian Ocean Region are treated similarly. They sit at the intersection of India’s diplomacy, security, and economy, and UPSC expects aspirants to connect dots across GS2 and GS3 themes. However, students often falter by preparing such topics in a generic or India-centric way, missing the multilateral angle (like funding deficits in IORA, or lessons from ASEAN and AU). Others skip over the governance or institutional depth needed (e.g., “Lack of a Dedicated Fundraising Mechanism” or “Technological & Digital Divide”), assuming only geopolitical content is important. This article solves that problem. It offers ready subheadings, specific country examples (e.g., Seychelles for traditional marine conservation, France among few IORA members contributing funds), and actionable reforms (e.g., Tiered Membership Contribution Model). That’s the real gap it addresses—it teaches how to move from facts to analysis to solution. The most special feature? It makes a seemingly dry regional grouping dynamic and forward-looking by connecting it to India’s role as a problem-solver—through data, funding models, maritime education, and disaster resilience. With its blend of “challenge-vision-way forward,” this article helps aspirants write answers that sound like policy, not just prep.
This article explores India’s engagement with IORA and the Indian Ocean Region, a theme UPSC approaches through a big-picture lens with grounded analysis. As seen in the 2024 GS2 question on India-Central Asia, UPSC expects more than bilateral facts. It looks for regional strategy, economic logic, and global relevance.
Aspirants often prepare these topics narrowly, missing the multilateral aspects or institutional gaps such as the absence of a dedicated fundraising mechanism or the digital divide. This article addresses that by offering structured subheads, real-world examples like Seychelles’ marine conservation and France’s financial role, and actionable reforms such as a tiered membership model. It connects India’s diplomacy with solutions and policy thinking, helping you write answers that are analytical, forward-looking, and aligned with UPSC’s expectations.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 2: Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics. [2024]
MICROTHEME: Groupings involving Immediate and Extended neighbours
India is set to take the helm of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) in November 2025, after serving as Vice-Chair. This leadership shift opens the door for India to shake up IORA’s governance and drive real change. Over the next two years, India plans to focus on three big priorities: boosting IORA’s budget with fresh funding, harnessing technology for smarter data and policy decisions, and teaming up with academic institutions to create maritime-focused courses. But as this game-changing chapter begins, can India secure the funding IORA needs to thrive? How will tech reshape policy-making in the region? And, will new academic collaborations deliver the next wave of maritime leaders?
Key Priorities for India as IORA Chair
Enhancing Funding Opportunities:
Engage private sector players such as shipping companies (Maersk, Adani Ports), oil & gas firms (ONGC, Reliance), and marine tourism operators to contribute financially to IORA initiatives.
Strengthening Maritime Security & Safety:
Expand India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram to enhance real-time maritime surveillance.
Address threats like piracy, illegal fishing, and trafficking.
Integrating Technology for Data Management & Policy Analysis:
Promote AI-driven marine data analytics to track ocean health, predict climate change impacts, and improve fisheries management across IORA nations.
Partner with institutions like IIT-Madras and the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) to create specialized courses in marine economy, deep-sea exploration, and coastal governance.
Strengthening Blue Economy & Sustainable Practices:
Collaborate with Australia for marine research, UAE for investment in sustainable fisheries, and Seychelles for traditional knowledge on marine conservation.
Develop eco-friendly economic growth models.
Challenges of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR)//mains
Category
Challenges
Geopolitical Rivalries
– Rising tensions between global powers (India, China, the US) over influence in the region. – China’s String of Pearls strategy vs. India’s SAGAR initiative. – Power struggles over key maritime chokepoints and islands.
Maritime Security Threats
– Piracy and armed robbery, particularly in the Gulf of Aden and off the Somali coast. – Maritime terrorism, smuggling, and illegal fishing activities. – Naval militarization, with increasing military bases and presence of foreign fleets.
Environmental and Climate Change
– Rising sea levels threatening small island nations (Maldives, Seychelles, Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep). – Marine pollution from oil spills, plastics, and industrial waste. – Coral reef destruction due to ocean warming and acidification.
Disaster Vulnerability
– Prone to tsunamis, cyclones, and earthquakes, especially in the Bay of Bengal and Sunda Arc. – Limited early warning systems and disaster management coordination. – Climate-induced displacement of coastal populations.
Economic Inequality & Development Gaps
– Disparities in economic development between South Asian, African, and Southeast Asian nations. – Underdeveloped maritime infrastructure in many Indian Ocean Rim countries. – Heavy reliance on external powers (China, the US) for investment in ports and connectivity.
Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing
– Overexploitation of fish stocks affecting marine biodiversity. – Fishing disputes between India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. – Chinese deep-sea trawlers operating in the EEZs of weaker coastal states.
Lack of Regional Governance & Cooperation
– Weak enforcement of international maritime laws. – IORA lacks a strong security framework, making regional cooperation difficult. – Dependence on external powers like QUAD, ASEAN, and the EU for security.
Technological & Digital Divide
– Limited access to marine research, satellite surveillance, and deep-sea exploration technology. – Weak digital infrastructure for real-time maritime security tracking. – Dependence on Western and Chinese firms for undersea internet cables.
Funding: A Major Challenge for IORA
Dependence on Member Contributions:
IORA’s budget relies on contributions from its 23 member states, many of which are developing economies.
Only a few countries (Singapore, UAE, France) have the financial capacity to contribute significantly, while others struggle to meet commitments.
Limited Private Sector Involvement:
IORA lacks strong partnerships with private enterprises that could provide alternative funding sources.
Industries related to shipping, oil & gas, fisheries, and marine tourism remain underutilized in IORA’s funding model.
Comparatively Small Budget:
IORA’s annual budget is only a few million dollars, which is insufficient for large-scale maritime security, climate resilience, and economic development projects.
Example: The Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), despite having only five members, operates with a $1.3 billion budget (2020-25)—significantly larger than IORA’s.
Expanding Scope of Activities:
IORA is expanding into maritime safety, disaster management, technology, and blue economy initiatives, all of which require significant investments.
Example: Implementing maritime surveillance systems and disaster risk management programs demands consistent funding, which is currently lacking.
Lack of a Dedicated Fundraising Mechanism:
Unlike ASEAN’s Development Fund, IORA does not have a structured mechanism to raise funds through external donors, financial institutions, or international aid agencies.
Example: ASEAN collaborates with the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank for project funding, while IORA lacks such institutional financial backing.
ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES
Diversifying Funding Sources:
IORA should explore alternative funding mechanisms such as public-private partnerships (PPPs), external grants, and contributions from international financial institutions.
Example: ASEAN collaborates with ADB and the World Bank for project funding, which IORA can emulate.
Enhancing Private Sector Engagement:
Establish formal partnerships with industries in shipping, energy, fisheries, and tourism to attract investment in key maritime projects.
Example: Creating an IORA Business Forum to facilitate corporate sponsorships and private sector-driven development projects.
Setting Up a Dedicated IORA Development Fund:
Establish a structured fund where member states, international donors, and regional banks contribute for long-term sustainability.
Example: ASEAN Development Fund (ADF) pools resources for regional projects; IORA can replicate this model to support blue economy and maritime security initiatives.
Strengthening Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation:
Strengthen financial partnerships with G20 economies, UN agencies, and regional economic blocs to access technical and financial assistance.
Example: IORA can seek support from India’s Development Partnership Administration (DPA) or Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) for infrastructure and capacity-building programs.
Implementing a Tiered Membership Contribution Model:
Introduce a differentiated contribution system where larger economies contribute more while smaller nations have flexible or in-kind contributions.
Example: Organizations like the International Maritime Organization (IMO) use GDP-based contribution tiers to ensure fair burden-sharing among members.
7 Regional Organizations IORA Can Learn From
As IORA prepares to take on a bigger role in shaping the future of the Indian Ocean region, it doesn’t have to start from scratch. Around the world, regional organizations have faced—and often solved—many of the same challenges IORA is now tackling: from funding and integration to tech adoption and collective security. By studying what works elsewhere, IORA can fast-track its own transformation and become a more effective, future-ready institution.
Organization
Key Lesson
Why It Matters for IORA
ASEAN
Consensus-building despite diversity
Shows how to maintain unity among varied members through structured dialogue mechanisms
EU (European Union)
Deep integration via strong institutions
Offers models for policy alignment, funding frameworks, and academic-research collaboration
AU (African Union)
Coordinated peace and development strategies
Useful for building integrated responses to regional security and development issues
GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council)
Economic and strategic alignment
Demonstrates how regional collaboration can boost trade, energy security, and defense
Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)
Empowering small and island states
Relevant for IORA’s smaller members, especially in climate and maritime resilience
CARICOM
Regional education and disaster preparedness
Highlights how shared institutions can drive capacity-building and rapid response
SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Org.)
Navigating big power dynamics with cooperation
Offers a model for managing geopolitical tensions while pursuing practical collaboration
Way Forward
India, as the upcoming chair of IORA, has the opportunity to reinforce its leadership in the Indian Ocean region by:
Spearheading maritime security collaborations.
Promoting sustainable economic development through the blue economy.
Facilitating greater private-sector involvement in regional projects.
Ensuring long-term financial sustainability for IORA.
India’s Role in Strengthening IORA Governance
Examples
Maritime Security and Disaster Resilience
India can lead efforts in maritime surveillance, anti-piracy measures, and disaster preparedness.
Expansion of India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) for real-time maritime awareness.
Capacity Building and Skill Development
India can offer training programs, scholarships, and technical assistance to IORA members.
Expansion of the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program for skill development.
Sustainable Blue Economy Initiatives
India can collaborate on marine biotechnology, sustainable fisheries, and ocean-based renewable energy.
India’s Deep Ocean Mission and offshore wind energy expertise can be shared with IORA nations.
Trade and Connectivity Infrastructure
India can enhance regional trade through port modernization and maritime logistics.
The Sagarmala Project can be leveraged to assist IORA nations in upgrading port infrastructure.
Multilateral Partnerships and Development Finance
India can collaborate with global groups to secure funding and policy coordination.
India’s role in the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) can support climate-resilient maritime projects in IORA nations.
#BACK2BASICS: Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA):
Facts about IORA:
Establishment: Formed in 1997 through the Charter of the Indian Ocean Rim Association, initially called IOR-ARC (Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation).
Headquarters: Ebene, Mauritius.
Members: 23 Member States and 11 Dialogue Partners
Member states include India, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa, Iran, Kenya, etc.
Dialogue partners include the USA, China, Japan, Germany, UK, etc.
Chairmanship:
India chaired IORA from 2011–2013.
Chairmanship rotates every 2 years.
Sri Lanka currently holds the chair (as of 2023–25).
Strategic Importance:
Covers a region that connects the Middle East, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Australia.
Facilitates 90% of global trade by volume, given the Indian Ocean’s critical sea lanes.
Guiding Principles:
Open regionalism
Respect for sovereignty
Non-alignment
Consensus-based decision-making
Key Initiatives & Areas of Focus:
Six Priority Areas:
Maritime Safety and Security
Trade and Investment Facilitation
Fisheries Management
Disaster Risk Management
Academic and S&T Cooperation
Tourism and Cultural Exchanges
Two Focus Areas:
Blue Economy
Women’s Economic Empowerment
IORA Action Plan (2017–2021 & Extended):
A roadmap to deepen regional cooperation, particularly in Blue Economy and Maritime Security.
IORA Concord (2017):
Signed at the first IORA Leaders’ Summit in Jakarta.
Outlines a vision for peace, stability, and sustainable development in the IOR.
IORA’s Blue Economy Initiatives:
Encourages sustainable use of ocean resources.
India hosts IORA Centre of Excellence for Blue Economy.
IORA Disaster Risk Management Core Group:
Aims to coordinate disaster response and build resilience among member states.
IORA Academic Group and Think Tank Network:
Facilitates research and knowledge-sharing in marine sciences, climate resilience, and regional policy.
India’s Role:
Hosts events like Indian Ocean Dialogue.
Provides capacity-building programs and scholarships.
Promotes maritime domain awareness through Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram.
Significance of Indian Ocean Region (IOR)
Dimension
Key Aspects
Geostrategic Importance
– The Indian Ocean connects key global economies, serving as a strategic link between Asia, Africa, and Europe. – Major chokepoints: Strait of Malacca, Bab-el-Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, and Sunda Strait. – Increasing competition among global powers (India, China, the US) for influence in the region.
Trade & Economic Significance
– Handles 75% of global maritime trade and 50% of daily oil consumption. – Key ports: Singapore, Colombo, Mumbai, Dubai, and Gwadar. – Rich in blue economy resources like fisheries, deep-sea minerals, and offshore oil & gas reserves.
Security & Defense
– Threats: Piracy (Horn of Africa), illegal fishing, maritime terrorism, and trafficking. – Strategic military presence of the US, China, India, and France in the region. – India’s role: SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region), IFC-IOR, and naval exercises like MALABAR.
Environmental & Climate Challenges
– Rising sea levels, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events impacting coastal communities. – Coral bleaching and marine pollution from plastics and oil spills. – Need for sustainable marine resource management.
Diplomatic & Multilateral Cooperation
– Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) for regional economic and maritime cooperation. – India’s engagement through Quad, ASEAN, SAGAR, and Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative. – Blue Economy partnerships with African and ASEAN nations.
Infrastructure & Connectivity
– China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) investing in ports (Gwadar, Hambantota, Djibouti). – India’s Sagarmala & Mausam projects to enhance port connectivity and regional maritime links. – Submarine cable networks for digital connectivity.
Scientific & Technological Advancements
– India’s Deep Ocean Mission for seabed exploration and marine biodiversity conservation. – Advancements in offshore wind energy, marine biotechnology, and oceanographic research. – Satellite-based maritime surveillance to enhance navigation safety and resource management.
MOCK DROP
The Indian Ocean Region is emerging as the new theatre of geopolitical and geoeconomic contestation.” Examine the strategic importance of the region and discuss India’s approach in leveraging opportunities and addressing challenges therein.19.Ocean of Opportunities : Is IORA Missing the Global Playbook ?
India’s household savings rate fell to 29.7% of GDP in 2022–23, the lowest level in 40 years, down from 34.6% in 2011–12.
What led to the decline in household financial savings in India?
Rise in Consumption Expenditure: After the COVID-19 pandemic, households increased spending on consumer durables, travel, and lifestyle, reducing the capacity to save.
High Inflation: Persistent rise in prices of essentials like food, fuel, and healthcare eroded disposable income and limited savings.
Shift Towards Riskier Financial Assets: Investments in mutual funds and equities increased, with SIP contributions rising significantly, while traditional savings like fixed deposits declined.
Slow Income Growth and High Interest Rates (Fisher Effect): Stagnant wages and low nominal income growth, coupled with high interest rates and loan EMIs, reduced household savings potential.
Rising Household Debt: Household liabilities reached 6.4% of GDP in FY24, due to more borrowing for housing, education, and personal loans.
Reversal of COVID-Era Forced Savings: Savings spiked during lockdowns but dropped sharply as economic activity resumed and pent-up demand surged.
Why is the shift to financial assets important for capital formation?
Improves Resource Mobilisation: Financial assets like deposits, mutual funds, and pension funds channel household savings into productive sectors, supporting investment and infrastructure growth.
Enhances Financial Intermediation and Efficiency: Financial institutions act as intermediaries, allocating savings to sectors with higher returns and productivity, ensuring efficient capital use. Eg: Banks mobilise savings into loans for MSMEs, which contribute significantly to employment and GDP.
Reduces Idle Capital and Boosts Formal Economy: Unlike physical assets (like gold and real estate), financial assets contribute to the formal economy, increasing credit availability and financial inclusion. Eg: Shift from gold to digital savings accounts increases liquidity and boosts credit growth in the economy.
How has rising household debt impacted financial stability?
Increased Vulnerability to Economic Shocks: High debt levels reduce households’ ability to absorb income shocks (like job loss or medical emergencies), leading to loan defaults and stress on financial institutions. Eg: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many households defaulted on EMIs due to income loss, affecting NBFCs and banks.
Reduced Net Financial Savings: Growing liabilities shrink the net financial savings rate, limiting the funds available for productive investments and weakening domestic capital formation. Eg: In FY24, household liabilities rose to 6.4% of GDP while financial savings fell to 5.1%, a four-decade low.
Pressure on Banking and Credit Systems: High levels of unsecured loans (like personal and gold loans) increase credit risk, prompting regulatory tightening and affecting credit flow to the economy. Eg: RBI imposed stricter norms on personal loans in FY25 to prevent systemic risk from unsecured lending growth.
What steps can improve savings among rural and low-income groups?
Promote Micro-Savings Products: Introduce low-ticket savings schemes tailored for daily or weekly contributions. Eg: The PM Jan Dhan Yojana encourages basic savings with zero-balance accounts.
Provide Government-Backed Guarantees and Incentives: Offer interest subsidies, insurance cover, or guaranteed returns to build trust among low-income savers. Eg: The Kisan Vikas Patra and Public Provident Fund (PPF) offer guaranteed returns with sovereign backing.
Expand Financial Literacy Campaigns: Run focused awareness drives on budgeting, saving, and investment options in local languages. Eg: RBI’s Financial Literacy Week and SEBI’s village workshops educate people on safe saving practices.
Leverage Digital and Fintech Solutions: Use mobile wallets, micro-investing apps, and digital payment systems to make saving more accessible. Eg: Platforms like Paytm Payments Bank and Airtel Payments Bank offer micro-savings and insurance.
Revamp and Strengthen Post Office Schemes: Modernise postal savings with better accessibility, digital interface, and doorstep banking. Eg: Rural Post Offices now offer core banking services, enabling safer and formal saving options.
Introduce Default Saving Options (Behavioral Nudges): Implement opt-out pension schemes or auto-enrollment in saving plans for informal workers. Eg: The Atal Pension Yojana encourages informal sector workers to save for retirement through auto-debits.
Way forward:
Develop a National Household Savings Strategy: Create a coordinated policy framework across ministries with clear targets, integrating financial literacy, product innovation, and social security measures for underserved populations.
Encourage Inclusive Fintech Innovations: Promote user-friendly micro-investing platforms, AI-driven financial guidance, and blockchain-based savings tools to enable secure, transparent, and accessible savings for rural and low-income households.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] Among several factors for India’s potential growth, savings rate is the most effective one. Do you agree? What are the other factors available for growth potential?
Linkage: The artilce explicitly state that India’s gross domestic savings rate fell to its lowest in four decades (29.7% of GDP in 2022-23). This question directly related to the importance of the savings rate for India’s growth, which aligns with the concern over falling household savings.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s multi-country diplomatic tour Ghana, Trinidad and Tobago, Argentina, and onward to Brazil and Namibia signals a strategic shift in India’s foreign policy toward deepening its engagement with the Global South.
What were the key outcomes of recent bilateral visits to Global South nations?
Upgraded Strategic Partnerships: India and Ghana elevated their ties to a Comprehensive Partnership, focusing on making Ghana a “vaccine hub”for West Africa.
Pharmaceutical Cooperation: In Trinidad and Tobago, India signed an MoU on Indian Pharmacopeia to improve access to quality and affordable generic medicines.
Energy and Mineral Collaboration: In Argentina, India expanded cooperation on critical minerals and tapped into Argentina’s vast reserves of shale gas and oil.
Why is there a renewed focus on ties with the Global South?
To Build an Alternative to the Global North-Dominated Order: India aims to create a more balanced and representative global system by deepening ties with developing countries. Engagements with Argentina, Ghana, and Trinidad & Tobago highlight efforts to diversify partnerships beyond traditional Western powers.
Shared Historical and Political Bonds: Many Global South nations, like India, experienced colonial rule and have supported platforms like the Non-Aligned Movement. Eg: India and Brazil co-founded the IBSA and BRICS groupings to promote Global South interests.
What role do India-led initiatives play in global development efforts?
Providing Affordable Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals: India supports access to low-cost generic medicines and vaccine equity. Eg: India’s pharma diplomacy during COVID-19 (under Vaccine Maitri) supplied vaccines to over 70 countries, strengthening health security.
Promoting Clean and Renewable Energy Access: India provides leadership in expanding clean energy adoption among developing countries. Eg: The International Solar Alliance (ISA) supports solar projects in sunshine-rich yet energy-poor nations across Africa and Asia.
Driving Digital Transformation in Governance: India shares its experience in digital identity, payment systems, and public service delivery to empower other nations. Eg: India’s Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), including Aadhaar, UPI, and DigiLocker, is being adopted in countries like Sri Lanka and Kenya.
Solutions to Global Challenges: India offers digital public infrastructure, affordable pharmaceuticals, and disaster resilience frameworks tailored for developing nations. Eg: The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) is being promoted as an India-led solution.
How is the diaspora being used to strengthen international relations?
Acting as Cultural and Political Bridges: The diaspora helps promote India’s soft power by strengthening cultural, linguistic, and historical ties with host countries. Eg: In Trinidad & Tobago, India acknowledged the Indian-origin ancestry of its leaders to deepen people-to-people diplomacy.
Boosting Economic and Technological Collaboration: Diaspora members often hold key positions in business, academia, and innovation, facilitating trade, investment, and knowledge exchange. Eg: Indian tech professionals in the U.S. and UK have helped foster technology partnerships and startup ecosystems.
Mobilising Political Support for India’s Strategic Interests: A well-integrated diaspora can influence foreign policy and legislative advocacy in favour of India. Eg: Indian-American lawmakers have supported stronger India-U.S. defense and trade ties in the U.S. Congress.
Way forward:
Institutionalise Diaspora Engagement through Dedicated Platforms: Strengthen initiatives like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, Overseas Indian Facilitation Centre (OIFC), and Global Pravasi Rishta Portal to maintain structured dialogue and collaboration with the diaspora.
Leverage Diaspora for Strategic Economic and Diplomatic Outreach: Encourage diaspora-led investments in priority sectors (like healthcare, education, digital tech) and empower diaspora communities to act as cultural ambassadors and policy influencers in multilateral forums.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.
Linkage: This question directly related to India’s historical and contemporary role as a leader among “oppressed and marginalised Nations,” which is synonymous with the “Global South” or “developing world” that the five-nation tour focuses.
India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.
About the Plant Treaty, 2001:
Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
Key Features:
Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.
Proposed Amendments:
Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.
India’s Concerns:
Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
[UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.
What are Protocells?
Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.
History of Formation of Protocells:
Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.
Key Findings in the 2025 Study:
Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.
2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.
3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3
As of 2025, India ranks as the world’s fourth most equal country in terms of income distribution, according to the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief.
About the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief:
What It Is: The Poverty and Equity Brief is a biannual publication by the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Global Practice Group.
Data Coverage: It includes country-level statistics on poverty, inequality, and shared prosperity using household surveys, national datasets, and income tracking.
Spring 2025 Focus: This edition emphasizes post-pandemic recovery, distributional equity, and the effectiveness of welfare policies in developing nations.
Key Parameters Involved:
Gini Index: It measures how equally income is distributed.
India’s Score: 25.5 in 2022–23, showing strong income equality.
International Poverty Lines:
$2.15/day (2017 PPP): Global standard for extreme poverty.
$3.00/day: Threshold for lower-middle-income countries like India.
Poverty Headcount Ratio: Reflects how many people live below the poverty line.
India’s Status: 2.3% below $2.15/day and 5.3% below $3/day in 2022–23.
Shared Prosperity Premium:
Measures if the bottom 40% of the population are doing better or worse than average.
High premium means inclusive growth.
Key Highlights from the Spring 2025 Report:
India’s Gini Score: Among Most Equal
With a score of 25.5, India is the 4th most equal country, after Slovak Republic (24.1), Slovenia (24.3), and Belarus (24.4).
India outperforms China (35.7) and all G7 and G20 nations.
Improved from 28.8 in 2011, showing a steady decline in inequality.
Major Poverty Reduction Milestone
Between 2011 and 2023, 171 million people moved out of extreme poverty.
Share of population under $2.15/day fell from 16.2% to 2.3%.
Share under $3/day fell to 5.3%, marking a significant decline.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. The repo rate is the rate at which other banks borrow from the Reserve Bank of India. 2. A value of 1 for Gini Coefficient in a country implies that there is perfectly equal income for everyone in its population.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
