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Subject: Economics

  • State the objectives and measures of land reforms in India. Discuss how land ceiling policy on landholding can be considered as an effective reform under economic criteria

    Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice.

    Objective of land reforms in India

    Reduction in Land Inequality through redistributive justice

    Social Justice under Article 38 and 39: Providing land to the landless

    Elimination of Feudal Land Ownership – transfer land ownership to actual cultivators.

    Enhancing Agricultural Efficiency by restructuring landholding patterns.

    Encouraging Cooperative Farming for better resource utilization and economies of scale.

    Preventing Exploitation of Tenants – To ensure fair rent, security of tenure, and land rights

    To consolidate land holdings and mitigate Land Fragmentation

    Prevention of Land Alienation – Eg- Forest Rights Act, 2006.

    Poverty Alleviation and improving rural standard of living.

    Promote investment in agriculture by removing absentee landlordism.

    Measures of land reforms in India

    Abolition of Intermediaries through Zamindari Abolition Acts

    Total land transferred: 173 lakh hectares

    2 crore tenants benefitted.

    Tenancy Reforms

    It led to fixation of fair rent (usually one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce).

    Total tenants who got land rights: 12.5 million (Agricultural Census 1981).

    Eg- West Bengal’s Operation Barga (1978)

    Ceiling on Land Holdings

    Total surplus land declared: 75 lakh hectares

    Total land actually distributed: 56 lakh hectares

    Land Consolidation measures – Punjab and Haryana enforced compulsory consolidation, while other states allowed voluntary consolidation if the majority of landowners agreed.

    Bhoodan-Gramdan Movements – “non-violent revolution” in India’s land reform programme.

    16 lakh hectares of land donated under Gramdan

    More than 160,000 villages pledged Gramdan by 1970.

    Phase 5: Land Records Modernization & Land Leasing Reforms (2000s-Present)

    Digitize land records to prevent disputes and ensure transparency.

    Land records fully digitized in 92% of villages (as of 2023).

    States leading in digitization are Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh.

    Modernisation of Land Records

    Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme – 96% digitization

    SVAMITVA Scheme for geo-tagging and property cards in rural India.

    Model Land Leasing Act, 2016 (NITI Aayog)

    Land Ceiling Policy as an Effective Reform under Economic Criteria

    Land redistributed to actual tillers– higher incentives to cultivate efficiently. Smallholder farmers in India achieve higher cropping intensity than large farms.

    Multiplier effect – Distribution of land to the poor increases purchasing power, strengthening the rural economy .

    Encourages Investment & Sustainable Use – Secure ownership motivates farmers to invest in irrigation, soil health, and technology.

    Employment – Smaller farms use labour-intensive methods, creating rural employment.

    Ceilings prevent re-concentration of land, supporting long-term agrarian stability.

    Increases women land ownership – women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

  • From being net food importer in 1960s, India has emerged as a net food exporter to the world. Provide reasons.

    At independence in 1947, India produced a mere 50 million tonnes (MT). By 2025-26, production has scaled to a record 330+ MT, catering to 1.4 billion people while maintaining a massive surplus for global trade.

    India as major importer in 1950s-1960s

    Low Productivity due to primitive farming methods.

    Monsoon Dependency and lack of irrigation.

    Colonial Legacy-The British prioritized cash crops (Indigo, Cotton) over food staples.

    Partition Impact-The most fertile, well-irrigated lands of the Indus basin went to Pakistan.

    Technological Gap-Absence of chemical fertilizers and high-yielding seed varieties.

    Neglect of Agriculture-Early Five-Year Plans focused heavily on rapid industrialization (Nehru-Mahalanobis model) at the expense of rural investment.

    Institutional Failures-Lack of formal credit led to debt traps.

    Reasons Behind India’s Emergence as a Net Food Exporter

    The Green Revolution (Phase I & II)-Adoption of HYV seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, and irrigation.

    Expansion of Irrigation-Total irrigated area rose from 22 million hectares (1950) to over 115 million hectares by 2026

    Institutional Support-The Minimum Support Price (MSP) provided price certainty, while the Food Corporation of India (FCI) ensured a guaranteed buyer for surpluses.

    The White & Blue Revolutions-India is now the world’s largest milk producer (~230 MT) and the 3rd largest fish producer, diversifying the export basket beyond grains.

    Through the National Horticulture Mission, India became the 2nd largest producer of fruits and vegetables globally.

    Agricultural Export Policy-identified 46 export hubs and the created Agri-Cells in Indian embassies abroad to find new markets.

    S&T and Digitalization-Tools like AgriStack (Farmer IDs) and e-NAM (National Market) have streamlined the supply chain, making Indian produce more competitive.

    Infrastructure & Logistics-Development of Mega Food Parks and the PM-Kisan SAMPADA Yojana have reduced post-harvest losses and increased shelf life for exports.

    GI Tagging-Branding products like Basmati Rice, Darjeeling Tea, and Alphonso Mangoes with Geographical Indication (GI) tags has fetched premium prices in EU and Middle Eastern markets.

    Resilience to Global Shocks-During the Russia-Ukraine conflict (2022-24), India stepped in as a critical supplier of wheat and rice to the Global South, cementing its status as a reliable partner.

    To reach the target of $100 billion in agricultural exports by 2030, India must shift from “Volume-driven” to “Value-driven” exports while ensuring the ecological sustainability of its farming practices.

  • Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

    The Central Government consolidated 29 existing central labour laws into four codes to simplify the legal framework, improve ease of doing business.

    4 Labour codes-

    Code on Wages

    Industrial Relations Code

    Code on Social Security

    Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code

    Merits

    Merging and Simplification of laws reduces complexity and overlaps.

    Uniform definitions & wage protections: Eg- code on Wages introduces a floor wage

    Flexibility in hiring/retention: IR Code raises the threshold for requiring government approval for layoffs/closures from 100 to 300 workers.

    Broader social security coverage: SS Code covers gig workers, platform workers, unorganised sector. (presently only 25%)

    Improved safety and working conditions: OSHWC mandates working hours, safety standards, migrant worker welfare.

    Promoting formalisation through clearer rules and digital compliance systems.

    Minimise exploitative practices – Eg: provision for overtime wages twice normal wages

    Easier resolution of industrial disputes – Eg: 14 days’ notice period before strikes & lockdowns

    Demerits

    Transition and Adaptation Challenges as India’s labour market is 90% informal, contributing nearly 50% of GDP

    Weakened collective bargaining: IR Code imposes stricter conditions on strikes (60 days’ notice).

    Job-security concerns: Increased flexibility may lead to precarious employment. Eg- fixed-term employment, easier layoffs

    Increased burden on SMEs: Eg- requirements such as documentation of wages, benefits, safety norms, etc..

    Inconsistent Application Across Sectors – agriculture (60% of informal workforce) and construction (~50 million workers) face seasonal work, casual labour, and absence of contracts

    Rising Costs for Businesses

    Gratuity obligations

    PF contributions

    Maternity benefits (26 weeks paid leave + crèche facilities)

    Progress So Far

    All four codes are legally enacted between 2019-20.

    34 States and UTs have notified draft rules but full implementation is pending.

    The Centre has initiated digital portals (e-Shram, unified labour compliance) to support implementation.

    Resistance from trade unions and worker groups continues. Eg- strikes by AITUC and CPI

    Labour is a concurrent subject – state-level variation persists.

    Enforcing labour codes can bring in transparency, simplification & digitization in compliance. This can help India to become a manufacturing hub as companies adopt the “China+1” strategy.

  • What is the need for expanding the regional air connectivity in India? In this context, discuss the government’s UDAN Scheme and its achievements.

    UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik) scheme was launched in 2017 to enhance regional air connectivity and make air travel accessible to all.

    Need for Expanding Regional Air Connectivity in India

    Bridging Regional Imbalances and connecting Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities. Boosts economic activity and market integration.

    Enhancing Mobility for Remote Areas such as the Northeast, Himalayan states, and island regions

    Boosting Tourism and Local Economies in places like Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Northeast India, and coastal regions.

    Reducing Travel Time & improving convenience for business, medical, and administrative travel.

    Air connectivity enhances ease of doing business by stimulating Trade and Investment

    National Integration & Security- strengthen connectivity in strategic border regions

    Employment generation at airlines, airports, air navigation sector

    Environment benefit with “green airports” minimising carbon footprint. Eg- Kochi Airport

    UDAN Scheme (Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik): Key Features

    Objective- Make air travel affordable and accessible, especially in underserved and unserved airports.

    Regional Connectivity Scheme provides viability gap funding (VGF) to airlines to operate flights on low-demand routes.

    Revives/operationalises existing airstrips, heliports to reduce infrastructure barriers.

    affordable.

    Focus on Remote Areas in the Northeast, hill states, islands, tribal districts to ensure last-mile connectivity.

    Encourages Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in regional airport infrastructure.

    Achievements of the UDAN Scheme

    India emerged as 3rd largest aviation market in the world

    Expansion of Airports- Over 70+ airports, heliports, and water aerodromes have been operationalised

    More than 1,000 UDAN routes have been awarded, connecting Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities to major metros.

    Improved Connectivity in the Northeast & Himalayas – Routes like Shillong-Agartala, Pasighat-Guwahati, Kullu-Shimla

    Enhanced Tourism & Local Economies in destinations such as Shirdi, Darbhanga, Jharsuguda, Kishangarh, and Hubballi

    Growth of Regional Airlines due to VGF-supported routes. Eg- Star Air, TruJet

    Operationalisation of Water Aerodromes in places like Sabarmati-Kevadia, creating new mobility options.

    Faster air access in remote regions supports emergency evacuation and medical services. Eg- during Kerala Floods

    Issues in Expanding Regional Air Connectivity / UDAN Implementation

    Low Route Viability- Many Tier-2 and Tier-3 routes have low passenger demand

    Smaller regional airlines (e.g., TruJet) have struggled due to high operational costs, fuel prices, and limited fleet capacity.

    Several UDAN airports lack proper runways, night-landing facilities, ATC systems, firefighting equipment

    Slow land acquisition, tendering, and regulatory clearances delay operationalisation

    Volatility in Fuel Prices- ATF constitutes 35-40% of airline cost

    Limited Last-Mile Connectivity as .any UDAN airports are far from city centres

    Way Forward

    Adopt flexible revenue-share + viability funding to ensure long-term route sustainability.

    Fast-track DGCA clearances, land acquisition, environmental approvals

    Leverage Technology – Integrate AI, ML, automation, digital ATC towers, and predictive maintenance

    Boost Multimodal Integration- Ensure UDAN airports are linked to rail, buses, waterways

    With improved PPP models and technology adoptionUDAN can act as a true catalyst for inclusive growth and balanced regional development.

  • Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

    Since the 1991 reforms, India shifted to a market-oriented growth model. Public expenditure on social services increased from 5% of GDP (1990s) to 8% (2024-25)

    Trend of Public Expenditure on Social Services in the Post-Reforms Period

    Early Post-Reform Phase (1991-2005)

    Low and stagnant spending around 5% of GDP due to fiscal consolidation.

    Prioritisation of basic education – expansion of SSA, mid-day meal.

    Health expenditure remained low at 1% of GDP, high OOPE.

    Rights-Based Expansion Phase (2005-2015)

    Public expenditure rose to 6-7% of GDP.

    Introduction of major rights-based entitlements: MGNREGA (2005), RTI, RTE (2009), NFSA (2013).

    Focus on rural livelihood missions, inclusion programmes. Eg- DAY-NRLM

    Post-2015 Period

    Social sector spending increased to 8% of GDP (2021-22).

    Health spending reforms – decline in OOPE from 65% to 40% (2014-2024).

    Women Specific schemes: Eg- Ujjwala (10 crore LPG connections)

    Emphasis on social security. Eg- e-Shram, PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.

    Increased focus on skill development, digital inclusion. Eg- JAM Trinity, PM-KVY

    In consonance with Inclusive Growth

    Extreme poverty fell from 16.2 % in 2011-12 to just 2.3 % in 2022-23

    MGNREGA, NFSA ensured income security and food security (67% population coverage).

    Human Capital Improvement – Life expectancy increased from 58 years (1990) to 73 years.

    Regional Inclusion – Aspirational Districts improved health, education, and infrastructure indicators in 112 lagging districts.

    Women Empowerment – Eg- 45% women representation in PRIs

    Limitations and Challenges

    Rural-Urban Divide Persists – Urban per capita income is 2x rural.

    Only 24-25% of the population has any formal social protection.

    Poor Learning Outcomes

    50% of Class 5 students cannot read Class 2 text (ASER).

    50% of graduates are employable only (India Skills Report).

    Low Public Health Spending – Still around 1.9% of GDP, below the global average of 6%.

    Inclusion-Exclusion errors and Leakages in PDS.

    High Inequality – Top 10% hold 77% of national wealth (Oxfam).

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) by increasing Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’

  • What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.

  • Explain how the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) can be used as a tool for assessing the fiscal performance of states in India. In what way would it encourage the states to adopt prudent and sustainable fiscal policies?

    The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) initiative by NITI Aayog evaluates the fiscal health of eighteen major states through a composite index using data from the CAG, covering the Financial Year 2022-23.

    FHI as a tool to assess fiscal performance of states

    FHI uses uniform metrics-Tax Buoyancy, Debt-to-GSDP, Fiscal Deficit, Capex Share-allowing objective comparison across states.

    Multi-dimensional Evaluation – Covers five pillars and reveal structural strengths and weakness

    Measures states’ ability to mobilise resources through Own Tax Revenue (OTR) and Own Non-tax Revenue (ONTR). Eg – Higher OTR-to-GSDP ratio reflects stronger fiscal autonomy.

    Measures Quality of Expenditure – FHI differentiates between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. Eg – States like Gujarat and Karnataka show higher capex ratios.

    Tracks Debt Sustainability – Assesses Debt-GSDP ratio, interest payment burden, and future liabilities. Eg – FHI flags high-debt states such as Punjab, Kerala, Rajasthan, and West Bengal.

    Monitors Fiscal Deficit and Compliance with FRBM Limits – Shows whether states adhere to 3% fiscal deficit glide path.

    Identifies Risk from Off-Budget Borrowings – Captures liabilities from power sector guarantees, state PSUs, and special purpose vehicles.

    Highlights Best Practices – Eg- Top states-Odisha (67.8 score), Chhattisgarh, Goa-show strong non-tax revenue, low fiscal deficits, and high capital outlays

    Role of FHI in Encouraging prudent and sustainable fiscal policies

    Promotes Fiscal Discipline – Poor rankings push states to reduce deficits and unsustainable borrowing.

    Incentivises Capital Spending – Encourages a shift from populist revenue expenditure towards productive capital outlay.

    Supports Long-Term Planning – Aligns state finances with sustainable development goals and resilience-building.

    Revenue Reforms-Stimulates states to improve tax buoyancy, and non-tax revenue mobilisation

    Drives Structural Reforms like subsidy rationalization, reduction in revenue leakages etc.

    Transparency & Accountability – Public scrutiny builds pressure on governments for fiscal prudence

    Encourages Inter-State Competition – Rankings foster a competitive spirit to achieve stronger fiscal performance.

    Strengthens Cooperative Federalism – Helps in Centre-State dialogue on shared fiscal risks and sustainability.

    Boosts Investor Confidence – Strong fiscal performance signals creditworthiness, attracting investment.

    Promotes Sustainable Borrowing Practices and enhances creditworthiness as better FHI improves a state’s credit rating.

    Challenges

    Data Gaps – CAG data of Financial Year 2022-23 used

    Off-budget borrowings not fully captured in FHI.

    Miss qualitative aspects such as governance quality, efficiency of welfare delivery etc.

    Inter-State Structural Variations are not fully captured – Eg- Resource-rich states (Odisha, Chhattisgarh) naturally perform better in non-tax revenues

    Competitive Populism reduces focus on fiscal discipline. Eg- farm loan waivers

    Weak Enforcement – FHI rankings have no binding effect on policy behaviour.

    By encouraging disciplined, sustainable, and quality spending, FHI can help realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

    Industrial Policy

  • India aims to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub. What are the challenges faced by the semiconductor industry in India? Mention the salient features of the India Semiconductor Mission.

    Semiconductors are the “oil of the 21st century.” With global chip shortages and geopolitical realignments, India aims to position itself as a semiconductor manufacturing hub through India Semiconductor Mission (ISM).

    Challenges Faced by India’s Semiconductor Industry

    High Capital Intensity – A state-of-the-art fab requires $8-12 billion.

    Complex Supply Chains – Semiconductors involve 300+ inputs, ultra-pure chemicals, specialised gases, and precision tools.

    Skill Gap – Eg-shortage of semiconductor engineers, chip designers, and clean-room technicians

    Insufficient Ecosystem – Lack of component suppliers, semiconductor-grade wafers, lithography equipment, etc.

    Infrastructure Deficits – Fabs require uninterrupted power, and nearly 10 million litres/day of ultra-pure water.

    Global Competition – Taiwan, South Korea, USA, EU offer 40-70% capital subsidies

    Long Gestation Periods (7-10 years) – deter private investment

    Dependence on Imports – India imports 90-95% of its semiconductor needs.

    Salient Features of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

    to build a complete semiconductor and display ecosystem.

    Key Schemes under ISM:

    Display Fabs Scheme: Up to 50% financial assistance

    Compound Semiconductors & ATMP/OSAT Scheme: Up to 50% support

    Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme – Incentives up to .

    Creation of Semiconductor Research Centres – including advanced R&D, talent development, and industry-academia collaboration.

    Development of semiconductor clusters in Gujarat (Dholera), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh.

    Single-window facilitation mechanism for all approvals, policy support, and coordination with global leaders.

    Support for compound semiconductors (GaN, SiC), ATMP/OSAT units to build packaging capabilities.

    Focus on trusted supply chains and strategic national security applications.

    Way Forward

    Establish specialised training programs to address projected 350,000 talent shortfall by 2027.

    Boost R&D and Indigenous IP Creation – increase spending to 2.5% of GDP

    Ensure timely incentive disbursal, ease of land acquisition, and high-quality utility infrastructure (power, water, logistics).

    “chip diplomacy”—with partners like the US, Japan, Taiwan, EU, and South Korea.

    Leverage global supply-chain realignments and US-China strategic tensions to attract firms seeking “China+1” diversification.

    India’s ambition to become a semiconductor manufacturing hub is strategically significant for economic resilience, technology sovereignty and future readiness.

    Infrastructure

  • Examine the scope of the food processing industries in India. Elaborate the measures taken by the government in the food processing industries for generating employment opportunities.

    India’s food processing sector is projected to grow from $307 billion (2023) to $700 billion by 2030, driven by rising demand, technological change, and strong policy support.

    Scope of the Food Processing Industry in India

    Large agricultural base

    Second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables.

    Wide product spectrum – Includes dairy, fruits & vegetables, meat, fisheries, beverages, ready-to-eat (RTE), and organic foods.

    Lifestyle Shift – 65% of Indians under 35, rising incomes, urbanization & busy lifestyles have boosted demand for ready-to-eat & processed foods.

    Rapid growth in Organised retail and “shopping mall culture”- better supply chain management. Eg- D-mart

    Export potential – India exports processed foods to 200+ countries

    Nearly 70% of food processing units operate in the unorganised MSME sector – generate rural employment and entrepreneurship.

    Challenges of the Food Processing Sector in India

    Low Level of Processing – Only ~10% of total agricultural produce is processed (vs 60-70% in developed countries).

    Post-harvest losses of 15-20% due to shortage of cold-storage, and transport infrastructure.

    Fragmented Supply Chain – 86% of farmers are small/marginal – limits aggregation

    High Logistics Cost of 13-14% of GDP (vs 8-9% in developed countries).

    Delay in project implementation – Eg- only 25 out of 42 approved Mega Food Parks operational

    Regulatory & Compliance Issues – Complex FSSAI norms and licensing delays discourage small processors.

    Low Exports – 16% of India’s agri-exports are processed products, compared to 25% in the US and 49% in China.

    Micro and small units struggle to access formal credit, collateral, and working capital.

    Skill gap – Only 3% of the food processing workforce is formally trained

    Quality & Safety Gaps – Inconsistent adherence to food safety standards, and limited testing infrastructure. Eg- Rejection of Indian exports by EU.

    Negligible R&D (<0.5% of sectoral GVA) – stall innovation in packaging and product design

    Measures taken by government

    The food processing sector has been recognized as a ‘sunrise sector‘ and a key priority industry under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.

    PM-Kisan SAMPADA (2016) – Central Sector Scheme to build a modern processing ecosystem from farm-gate to retail.

    Mega Food Parks Scheme – Provides land, utilities, common facilities, effluent plants, R&D labs.

    PM Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PM-FME) – Provides 40% credit-linked subsidy, branding support, and training for 2 lakh micro units under the One District One Product (ODOP) approach.

    Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLISFPI) to boost domestic manufacturing.

    Operation Greens (TOP to TOTAL) – Price stabilization fund for tomato, onion, potato, now expanded to all perishable crops

    100% FDI in food processing and 100% FDI under Government route for retail of food produced in India.

    e-NAM Integration – Linking mandis for better price discovery, quality grading, and seamless movement of produce.

    Food processing included under PSL to improve access to affordable credit.

    National Makhana Board to globally position Indian superfoods like makhana.

    Infrastructure Status (HLIS) – Food parks are included in Harmonized List of Infrastructure – enables concessional loans.

    Collaboration with Invest India for FDI facilitation, market access, regulatory assistance.

    As India moves forward under the Make in India vision, the food processing industry will continue to be a key driver of economic growth, ensuring food security, quality, and global competitiveness.

    Land Reforms

  • What are the challenges before the Indian economy when the world is moving away from free trade and multilateralism to protectionism and bilateralism? How can these challenges be met?

    According to the Economic Survey, the previous global paradigm of ‘stable geopolitics’ and ‘free trade and investment movement’, has been fading and the foundations on which many nations built themselves are now being shaken.

    World Moving from Free Trade & Multilateralism to Protectionism & Bilateralism

    Trade Wars – US-China tariff wars

    WTO Deadlock over Doha Development Agenda

    Rise of Bilateral/Regional Deals – Eg- RCEP

    Green Protectionism – EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), US CHIPS Act

    Challenges before the Indian economy

    Fragmentation of Global Trade due to rise in tariffs, sanctions etc threaten export-oriented sectors. Eg- IT Industry

    Volatile Capital Flows

    Energy security challenges due to sanctions on Russia (40% share)

    Currency Depreciation

    Technology Barriers – New protectionist tools like data localisation rules of EU.

    Employment Impact – Labour-intensive sectors like textiles, gems, and automobiles face slowdown.

    Way Forward

    Internal Measures

    Ease of Doing Business – The Economic Survey (2024-25) key recommendation is ‘to get the domestic economic engine purring by pulling all the levers of deregulation’.

    Raising the investment rate to around 35% of GDP from the current level of ~ 31%.

    Boost domestic demand through high public capex

    Build resilience in semiconductors, defence, and critical minerals under Atmanirbhar Bharat.

    External Measures (Global Integration)

    Diversify Export Markets – Expand trade with Africa, Latin America, Central Asia, and ASEAN.

    Conclude Balanced FTAs – With EU, Canada, Australia.

    Strengthen IMEC, INSTC, and Chabahar Port for secure and cost-effective routes.

    Global South Leadership in WTO to revive dispute settlement and ensure fair rules.

    A self-sustained growth strategy is imperative for India’s long-term economic sovereignty.