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Subject: Environment

  • India’s Rs 40,000 crore mine closure corpus opens a circular economy opportunity, but needs inter ministry coordination

    Why in the News

    India has accumulated a Rs 40,000 crore mine closure corpus, alongside the 2025 Mine Closure Guidelines, opening opportunities for circular economy activity and eco-tourism at exhausted mine sites. Realising this potential requires coordination across the Coal, Mines and Environment Ministries, a structure that does not currently exist.

    What does the Mine Closure Guidelines framework provide for?

    1. Corpus purpose: The Rs 40,000 crore corpus is built from contributions mining companies make toward the eventual environmental restoration of a mine site.
    2. Progressive closure: The 2025 guidelines push miners toward progressive closure, restoring parts of a mine as operations wind down rather than waiting until full exhaustion.
    3. Repurposing scope: Restored sites can potentially host circular economy activity, such as reprocessing mine waste, or be converted into eco-tourism destinations.

    Why does inter ministry coordination remain the binding constraint?

    1. Divided jurisdiction: Mine closure decisions touch the Ministry of Coal, the Ministry of Mines, and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, each with separate approval processes.
    2. No single owner: No single ministry currently holds end to end responsibility for converting a closed mine site into a productive circular economy or tourism asset.
    3. Execution gap: The problem is not the availability of funds in the corpus, but the absence of an institutional mechanism to direct that money toward a repurposing plan across ministries.

    Conclusion

    The mine closure corpus and the 2025 guidelines create the financial and regulatory basis for circular economy and eco-tourism use of closed mine sites. Whether that potential is realised depends on whether the Coal, Mines and Environment Ministries build a coordinated execution mechanism, not on the size of the corpus itself.

    1. Western Ghats Eco-Sensitive Area notification remains deadlocked

      Why in News

      1. The Union Environment Ministry’s expert committee on Western Ghats Ecologically Sensitive Areas has had its tenure extended to July 2027.
      2. The 2024 draft notification covering 56,825 sq km remains unresolved across six states.

      Key Highlights

      1. Panel extension: Expert committee tenure extended to July 2027.
      2. Draft notification scope: 2024 draft notification covers 56,825 sq km across six states.
      3. Background dispute: The unresolved notification continues the divergence between the Gadgil Committee Report and the Kasturirangan Committee Report on how much of the Western Ghats should fall under Eco-Sensitive Area status.

      What is an Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA)?

      • Ecologically fragile areas notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
      • Act as “shock absorbers” around protected ecosystems by regulating developmental activities.
      • Aim to balance environmental conservation with sustainable development.

      Gadgil Committee vs Kasturirangan Committee

      Gadgil Committee (Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, 2011)

      • Recommended about 64% of the Western Ghats as ESA.
      • Favoured strict conservation with a bottom-up, community-led approach.
      • Proposed a ban on mining, quarrying and highly polluting industries in sensitive zones.
      • Emphasised Gram Sabha participation in environmental governance.

      Kasturirangan Committee (High-Level Working Group, 2013)

      • Recommended about 37% of the Western Ghats (around 59,940 sq km) as ESA.
      • Used satellite imagery to identify ecologically sensitive landscapes.
      • Allowed greater flexibility for agriculture and human settlements.
      • Focused on balancing ecological protection with economic development.

      Significance of the Western Ghats

      • One of the world’s eight hottest biodiversity hotspots.
      • Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
      • Origin of major peninsular rivers including Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri and Periyar.
      • Plays a crucial role in regulating the South-West Monsoon.
      • Supports rich biodiversity with a high proportion of endemic flora and fauna.
      • Provides vital ecosystem services, including water security and climate regulation.

      [2016] ‘Gadgil Committee Report’ and ‘Kasturirangan Committee Report’, sometimes seen in the news, are related to

      (a) constitutional reforms

      (b) Ganga Action Plan

      (c) linking of rivers

      (d) protection of Western Ghats

      “[2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

      1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

      2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in those zones except agriculture.

      (a) 1 only

      (b) 2 only

      (c) Both 1 and 2

      (d) Neither 1 nor 2

    2. 3 Great Indian Bustard Chicks Placed in Rewilding Tunnel

      Why in News?

      Three Great Indian Bustard (Godawan) chicks bred at the Godawan Conservation Centre, Jaisalmer, have been placed in a specially designed rewilding tunnel to prepare them for release into the Desert National Park under India’s captive breeding and species recovery programme.

      Background

      • The initiative is part of the Great Indian Bustard Recovery Programme, implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in collaboration with the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Rajasthan Forest Department and international conservation partners.

      Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps)

      • One of the heaviest flying birds in the world and endemic to the Indian subcontinent.
      • Locally known as Godawan in Rajasthan.
      • Inhabits arid grasslands, scrublands and semi-desert ecosystems.
      • Rajasthan’s Desert National Park holds the largest surviving wild population.

      Conservation Status

      • IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered
      • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I (highest protection)
      • CITES: Appendix I
      • CMS (Bonn Convention): Appendix I

      Major Threats

      • Collision with overhead power transmission lines (largest cause of mortality).
      • Habitat loss and fragmentation due to agriculture, infrastructure and renewable energy projects.
      • Predation of eggs and chicks by feral dogs and other predators.
      • Low reproductive rate (typically one egg per breeding season).

      Conservation Measures

      • National Conservation Action Plan for Great Indian Bustard (2013).
      • Species Recovery Programme under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) scheme.
      • Captive Breeding Centre at Jaisalmer for population augmentation.
      • Undergrounding or bird diverters on power lines in priority habitats following Supreme Court directions.
      • Habitat protection and predator management in key breeding areas.

      [2012] Which one of the following groups of animals belongs to the category of endangered species?
      (a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and Asiatic Wild Ass
      (b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian Bustard
      (c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Saras (Crane)
      (d) Lion tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur and Cheetal

    3. Ken-Betwa stir claims its first win, activist suspends fast

      Why in News?

      An activist ended an 18-day hunger strike after the Madhya Pradesh government agreed to conduct fresh surveys of families allegedly excluded from rehabilitation under the Ken-Betwa Link Project.

      Key Highlights

      • Jai Kisan Sangathan leader Amit Bhatnagar suspended his indefinite fast after the government accepted the demand for fresh village-level surveys.
      • The issue concerns villages in the Daudhan Dam submergence area in Chhatarpur district, Madhya Pradesh.
      • Protesters alleged exclusion of eligible families from compensation and rehabilitation, flawed surveys, and irregularities in Gram Sabha proceedings.
      • Joint teams of government officials and Jai Kisan Sangathan representatives will conduct fresh surveys.
      • The agitation will continue under the banner of “Nyay Satyagraha.”

      Ken-Betwa Link Project

      • India’s first river interlinking project under the National Perspective Plan.
      • Links the Ken River (Madhya Pradesh) with the Betwa River (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).
      • Comprises the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km canal, and associated infrastructure.
      • Aims to provide irrigation, drinking water, hydropower, and drought mitigation in the Bundelkhand region.

      Concerns

      • Submergence of forest areas, including parts of Panna Tiger Reserve.
      • Displacement and rehabilitation of affected communities.
      • Ecological impacts on river ecosystems and wildlife.

      National River Linking Project (NRLP)

      • Conceived by the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) in 1982.
      • Envisages 30 inter-basin links (16 Peninsular and 14 Himalayan) to transfer water from surplus to deficit basins.

      PYQ (2017, GS3, 10 Marks) Not many years ago, river linking was a concept but it is becoming reality in the country. Discuss the advantages of river linking and its possible impact on the environment.

      [2016] Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken?

      [A] Cauvery and Tungabhadra

      [B] Godavari and Krishna

      [C] Mahanadi and Sone

      [D] Narmada and Tapti

    4. Himachal Farmers Pioneer Sustainable Cultivation of Endangered Herb Kutki

      Why in News?

      Farmers in Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, have adopted a sustainable cultivation model for the endangered medicinal herb Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), reducing pressure on wild populations while improving rural livelihoods.

      What is Kutki?

      https://images.openai.com/static-rsc-4/eWJ2ajVfg0zD8mqVFk2bAyran6DbVQWDRMwp849TfVFy-KN1JhXyyDk3rpPBkEE95grNmcLcTJrOfGsKlfbQB7DKDSFiDYJduuI7CMrtuVLDHMvt0KP9aej7jW63DUIpIUlxRvBo5G2gKSlXtTHtdQ-pute8ik196DZec7QgGpKSGuy9WiCmGoGjNwUSJeAo?purpose=fullsize
      • A high-value Himalayan medicinal herb found at 2,700 to 4,500 m altitude.
      • Native to Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan.
      • Widely used in Ayurveda for liver and digestive ailments.

      Why is it Endangered?

      • Overharvesting by uprooting the entire plant.
      • Habitat degradation and rising commercial demand.
      • Declining natural populations.

      Sustainable Cultivation Model

      • Developed by the Himalayan Research Group (HRG) under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
      • Farmers harvest only the stolons (horizontal stems), leaving the mother plant intact.
      • This enables repeated harvesting, conserves the species, and provides a steady source of income.
      • The programme is supported by DST’s Science for Equity, Empowerment and Development (SEED) Division and expanded under the Department of Biotechnology’s Himalayan Bioresource Mission (2022).

      Conservation Status

      • IUCN Red List: Endangered
      • CITES: Appendix II (international trade regulated through permits)

      Prelims Value Added

      • CITES (1973; in force from 1975) regulates international trade in endangered species.
      • Secretariat: Geneva, Switzerland.
      • Appendix I: Commercial trade generally prohibited.
      • Appendix II: Regulated trade.
      • Appendix III: Protected by at least one country seeking international cooperation.

      [2022] With reference to “Gucchi” sometimes mentioned in the news, consider the following statements:
      1. It is a fungus.
      2. It grows in some Himalayan Forest areas.
      3. It is commercially cultivated in the Himalayan foothills of north-eastern India.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 3 only

      [C] 1 and 2

      [D] 2 and 3

    5. Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) Mechanism for Biodiversity Conservation

      Why in News?

      The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) has released ₹6.67 crore under the Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism to 11 cotton-growing States for biodiversity conservation and livelihood enhancement. The funds were realised from Bayer Science & Innovation Pvt. Ltd. for research involving 25,431 cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) varieties.

      What is Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)?

      • Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) is a mechanism under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, ensuring that benefits arising from the commercial use of biological resources are shared fairly with biodiversity conservation efforts and local communities.
      • It implements the principle of fair and equitable sharing of benefits under the Nagoya Protocol.

      Why was the Amount Released?

      • ₹7.62 crore was realised from Bayer Science & Innovation Pvt. Ltd.
      • Since cotton germplasm was accessed through traders and intermediaries, individual benefit claimers could not be identified.
      • Hence, the funds were allocated to State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) based on the geographical distribution of cotton cultivation.

      Allocation Criteria

      • Based on data from the All India Coordinated Research Project on Cotton (AICRP) under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
      • Distributed proportionately according to each State’s cotton cultivation area.
      • ₹6.67 crore released to 11 cotton-growing States, while ₹0.95 crore was retained by the NBA as per the Biological Diversity Rules.

      Utilisation of Funds

      The funds will support:

      • On-farm and ex-situ biodiversity conservation.
      • Preparation and updation of People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs).
      • Ecosystem restoration and Biodiversity Heritage Sites.
      • Documentation of traditional knowledge.
      • Biodiversity research and digital databases.
      • Capacity building of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).
      • Livelihood enhancement and awareness programmes.

      Significance

      • Promotes conservation of India’s rich cotton genetic diversity.
      • Ensures benefits from commercial use of biological resources reach biodiversity-rich regions.
      • Supports implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, especially:
        • Target 13: Fair and equitable benefit sharing.
        • Target 4: Conservation of genetic diversity.

      About National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)

      • Established under: Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
      • Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
      • Nature: Statutory body.
      • Functions: Regulates access to India’s biological resources. Advises on biodiversity conservation. Implements the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing.

      [2023] Consider the following statements:
      1. In Biodiversity the India, Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.
      2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.
      Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] Both 1 and 2

      [D] Neither 1 nor 2

    6. Ken, Betwa and a Line Drawn on Water

      Why in the News:

      Construction of the Rs 44,605 crore Ken Betwa Link Project, India’s first inter basin river transfer project, has entered a decisive phase requiring nearly 2,000 families across 10 villages to be relocated before river diversion can begin. The accelerated rehabilitation process has triggered disputes over eligibility, compensation, and resettlement.

      • Note: An activist ended an 18-day hunger strike after the Madhya Pradesh government agreed to conduct fresh surveys of families allegedly excluded from rehabilitation under the Ken-Betwa Link Project.

      What is the Ken Betwa Link Project, and what does it promise?

      1. Origins and approval: The project was identified by the National Water Development Agency (NWDA), established in 1982. A Feasibility Report was prepared in 1995, the Detailed Project Report (DPR) was agreed upon by Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and the Centre in 2005, and the Union Cabinet approved the project in December 2021.
      2. Core structure: The project centres on the Daudhan Dam, a 71 metre high dam on the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh with a storage capacity of 2,853 million cubic metres, connected through a 221 km link canal to the Betwa River basin.
      3. Associated works: It also includes the Lower Orr Project, Kotha Barrage, Bina Complex Multipurpose Project, and the restoration of the Ken Canal System in Uttar Pradesh.
      4. Projected benefits: The project is expected to:
        • Irrigate 9.04 lakh hectares across Bundelkhand.
        • Generate 130 MW of hydropower and solar power.
        • Supply 194 million cubic metres of drinking water annually.
      5. Construction status: By February 2026, most heavy machinery had been mobilised, river diversion works had begun, and excavation for the Daudhan Dam foundation was about 70% complete, although the tunnel and Power House II designs remained pending.

      What is the human and ecological cost, and how is it officially being measured?

      1. Submergence scale: The project will submerge around 9,000 hectares, including: 5,258 hectares of forest land, 4,141 hectares of the core Panna Tiger Reserve and Around 2,171 hectares of village land.
      2. Displacement scale: The Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) Plan identifies 1,913 affected families across 10 villages, with a population of 8,339, of whom 33.9% belong to Scheduled Tribes.
      3. Legal precondition: The Environmental Clearance granted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) requires that all rehabilitation and resettlement measures be completed before the project is commissioned.
      4. Compensation formula: Under the September 2023 Madhya Pradesh rehabilitation package:
        • Every adult member of an affected family is entitled to Rs 12.5 lakh.
        • A married couple is treated as a single family unit.
        • Housing assistance ranges from Rs 50,000 to Rs 1.5 lakh.
        • Each family receives a resettlement plot at Kawar Karondiya.
      5. Official disbursement figures:
        • Chhatarpur: About 89% land compensation, 96% asset compensation, and over 96% rehabilitation payments completed.
        • Panna: About 90% land compensation and almost all rehabilitation payments released.

      Why do official completion figures and ground conditions diverge?

      1. Contested demolitions: Demolition of houses in Daudhan village began on May 13, 2026. Officials claim only vacant or already relocated houses were demolished, while residents allege inadequate notice and forced demolition.
      2. Undercounted households: Several residents report that family members were excluded from official surveys, leaving them without compensation despite possessing Aadhaar cards as proof of residence.
      3. Scale of unresolved cases: Officials acknowledge only 30 to 35 pending cases, whereas villagers estimate 100 to 150 people continue living amid partially demolished settlements.
      4. Distress land sales: Families outside the formal acquisition zone are selling land for Rs 2 to 5 lakh per plot, often below market value, amid fears of post monsoon demolitions.

      Does relocation replace what is lost, or only what can be priced?

      1. Uncounted livelihoods: Forest based livelihoods, including mahua, tendu leaves, amla, honey, and fuelwood, supported household incomes but are largely absent from formal compensation assessments.
      2. Resettlement colony shortfalls: The Kawar Karondiya resettlement colony lacks a piped water supply, forcing residents to purchase water tankers or travel long distances for drinking water.
      3. Income collapse: Many households report severe reductions in income. One shopkeeper’s earnings reportedly fell from Rs 5,000 per day to Rs 300 to 400 per day, while some children have left school to support family incomes.
      4. Partial gains: Some resettled families acknowledge improvements such as access to electricity, which was unavailable in their original villages.

      Conclusion:

      The Ken Betwa Link Project illustrates the challenge of balancing large scale infrastructure development, environmental conservation, and social justice. While official compensation figures suggest substantial progress, disputes over eligibility, livelihood loss, and resettlement quality reveal significant implementation gaps. The ultimate test of the project will be whether rehabilitation and resettlement are completed in both letter and spirit before river diversion begins, as required under the Environmental Clearance.

    7. Shrinking Yamuna Floodplains & Rising Flood Risk

      Why in News?

      A study by University of Delhi (DU) and Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Bhopal, published in the Journal of the Geological Society of India, found that the Yamuna’s floodplains in Delhi have shrunk by nearly one-third over the last century, increasing flood vulnerability.

      Key Highlights

      • Study Area: 50-km stretch of the Yamuna in Delhi.
      • Methodology: Historical maps (1799 onwards) and satellite imagery (up to 2024).
      • Major Findings:
        • River channel narrowed by ~68%.
        • Formative discharge declined by ~89%.
        • Around 45 sq km (one-third) of floodplains disconnected by embankments.
        • Sediment deposits reduced from 20 sq km (1985) to 4 sq km (2020).
      • Major Causes:
        • Barrages (Hathnikund, Wazirabad, Okhla).
        • Embankments.
        • Rapid urbanisation and floodplain encroachment.

      Key Term: Formative Discharge

      • Also called Channel-Maintaining Discharge.
      • The long-term river flow that shapes the river channel, transports sediment, and maintains its flood-carrying capacity.
      • Floodplains: Flat, low-lying areas adjacent to a river that are periodically inundated during floods. Act as natural buffers by storing excess floodwater, recharging groundwater, and supporting biodiversity.
        • Encroachment and embankments reduce their flood-moderating capacity.

      [2026] Consider the following assertion:
      In the Pleistocene period either the Yamuna once flowed into the Indus, or the Sutlej flowed into the Yamuna and one major tributary of either had shifted from the Ganga to the Indus or vice versa.
      Which of the following is/are the basis of the above assertion?
      1. The Nadi-Sukta of the Rigveda
      2. The explorations of the Sutlej and the Yamuna by Robert Bruce Foote
      3. The presence of the same species of dolphins in both the Indus and the Ganga river systems
      Select the answer using the code given below:

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 only

      [C] 1 and 2

      [D] 3

    8. PARIVARTAN Scheme

      Why in News?

      The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has approved the operational guidelines for the PARIVARTAN Scheme to replace old, polluting trucks and buses in the National Capital Region (NCR) with cleaner vehicles.

      Key Highlights

      • Full Form: PARIVARTAN – Programme for Accelerated Renewal and Incentivization of Vehicle Assets for Reducing Transport Air Pollution and Network Emissions
      • Approved by Union Cabinet: 3 June 2026
      • Total Outlay:₹9,585 crore
        • Central Government Support: ₹5,041 crore
      • Targets replacement of old trucks and buses with Bharat Stage-VI (BS-VI) compliant vehicles, or Electric Vehicles (EVs).
      • Implementing Ministry: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH)
      • Funding Agency: National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB)
      • States Covered: The following have notified 10-year Motor Vehicle Tax concession and registration fee waiver in Delhi (NCT), Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh

      Incentives under the Scheme

      • Motor Vehicle Tax concession.
      • Registration fee waiver.
      • 5% interest subvention on vehicle loans.
      • Minimum 8% Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) discount on eligible vehicles.
      • Monthly fuel voucher support for eligible diesel and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) replacement vehicles.
      • One-time financial assistance for electric replacement vehicles.
      • Support for Certificate of Deposit (CoD) trading.

      Digital Implementation

      The scheme will operate through an integrated digital platform linked with:

      • VAHAN – National Vehicle Registry
      • V-Scrap – Vehicle scrapping portal
      • DigiELV – Digital End-of-Life Vehicle platform
      • Public Financial Management System (PFMS)
      • Participating lenders and fuel voucher systems.

      About NCRPB

      • Full Form: National Capital Region Planning Board
      • Established: 1985 under the National Capital Region Planning Board Act, 1985
      • Administrative Ministry: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
      • Responsible for coordinated planning and development of the National Capital Region (NCR).

      [2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
      I. Full battery Electric vehicles
      II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
      III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles
      How many of the above are considered as alternative powertrain vehicles?

      [A] Only one

      [B] Only two

      [C] All the three

      [D] None

    9. China’s Great Green Wall

      Why in News?

      China’s Three-North Protective Forest Program (TNPFP), popularly known as the Great Green Wall, has significantly reduced desertification, though scientists stress that long-term efforts are still needed.

      Key Highlights

      • Launched in 1978 to combat desertification in northern China.
      • Covers the northeast, north and northwest regions of China.
      • Uses *Straw Checkerboards, a technique in which straw is arranged in square grids to stabilize sand dunes, reduce wind erosion, retain soil moisture and enable saplings to take root.
      • Forests created under the programme now cover about 5,00,000 sq. km.
      • Since 2000, desertified land has reduced by over 1,000 sq. km annually.
      • Overall desertified land has shrunk by around 10%, while severely desertified areas have declined by over 40%.
      • Forest cover in the programme area increased from 5% (1978) to 14% (2022).
      • More than 300 million rural workers have contributed to the programme.

      What is Desertification?

      • Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas due to climatic variations and human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing and unsustainable farming.

      Significance

      • Reduces sandstorms and soil erosion.
      • Improves ecological restoration and carbon sequestration.
      • Demonstrates the importance of sustained policy support and community participation in combating land degradation.

      UPSC Prelims Value Addition

      • Great Green Wall: Also called the Three-North Protective Forest Program (TNPFP).
      • Launched: 1978.
      • Technique Used: Straw Checkerboards for sand dune stabilization and afforestation.
      • Related Convention: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

      [2016] What is/are the importance/importances of the ‘United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’?

      1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
      2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of major portion of financial resources to these regions.
      3. It is committed to bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating the desertification.

      Select the correct answer using the code given below.

      [A] 1 only

      [B] 2 and 3 only

      [C] 1 and 3 only

      [D] 1, 2 and 3