EIA is a systematic process to evaluate the environmental, social and economic impacts of a proposed project before granting environmental clearance under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Differences between EIA Notification, 2006 and Draft EIA Notification, 2020
Analysis of Draft EIA
The future lies in restoring public trust, strengthening scientific rigour, ensuring zero post-facto clearances, aligning EIA with climate resilience goals.
Green Grid Initiative, launched by India and UK, seeks to establish an inter-connected global renewable power grid, under the principle of “one sun, one world, one grid.”
It is based on three thematic pillars:
Finance – Mobilise investment to double grid funding by 2030.
Planning, Permits & Operation – Improve long-term planning and speed up approvals for faster grid development.
Supply Chains – Strengthen manufacturing and match demand with supply of grid components.
“The Sun Never Sets” Vision – Ensure continuous solar availability globally by connecting regions in different time zones.
Build international collaboration for the effective use of renewable energy.
Global Interconnected Grid to accelerate the transition to renewable energy.
Energy Sharing Mechanism – Enable countries with low sunlight to access power from regions with surplus solar energy.
Ensuring energy equity and access: enabling mini-grids and off-grid communities
Accelerate the shift away from fossil fuels by enhancing deployment of clean energy
The concept of OSOWOG was first introduced by India’s Prime Minister at the first Assembly of ISA in October 2018.
It was formally launched by India and UK in COP26
By building a framework for international cooperation, it strengthens the global pathway towards decarbonisation and energy security by 2030, making it a pivotal instrument for achieving SDG-7 and supporting global climate action.
The 26th Conference of the Parties (COP-26) to the UNFCCC, held in Glasgow in 2021, sought to accelerate global efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C under the Paris Agreement.
Recognition of Climate Emergency – Countries reaffirmed the goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C.
Accelerating Climate Action
Countries acknowledged this as a critical decade, requiring 45% CO₂ reduction by 2030 to reach net-zero by mid-century.
They agreed to submit stronger NDCs by 2022, and an annual NDC synthesis report.
For the first time, parties agreed to phase down unabated coal and phase out inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies, though language was weakened from “phase-out” to “phase-down.”
Urged immediate fulfilment of Climate Finance Commitments by Developed countries
Countries agreed to double adaptation finance for developing nations and launched a Global Goal on Adaptation work programme.
Completing the Paris Rulebook – Consensus achieved on Article 6 (carbon markets), Enhanced Transparency Framework, and common reporting formats.
Strengthening of the Santiago Network for technical assistance and launch of the Glasgow Dialogue on funding arrangements for loss and damage.
Major Side Deals & Announcements
Forests: 137 countries committed to halt and reverse deforestation by 2030.
103 countries joined the Global Methane Pledge to cut emissions by 30% by 2030.
Zero-Emission Vehicles: Over 30 countries and major automakers committed to new zero-emission vehicle sales by 2035/2040.
Panchamrit – Five Key Climate Targets
500 GW of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030
50% of energy requirements from renewables by 2030
Reduction of emissions intensity of GDP by 45% (from 2005 levels) by 2030
1 billion tonnes reduction in projected carbon emissions by 2030
Net-zero by 2070
India, along with the UK, launched the Green Grids Initiative – One Sun, One World and One Grid mission to connect grids
Call for Climate Justice & Equity – India emphasised Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR-RC) and demanded enhanced finance and technology transfer from developed countries.
The mantra of LIFE- Lifestyle for Environment as a mass movement for Environment Conscious Lifestyles.
The summit produced new “building blocks” to advance implementation of the Paris Agreement for sustainable, low-carbon pathway forward.
Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities.
Effects of Global Warming on Global Climate
Melting Glaciers & Polar Ice – Eg – Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets losing mass at record rates.
Sea-Level Rise – IPCC projects 1.3-1.6 m SLR by 2100 under high-emission scenarios – Submergence of low-lying coasts, salinity intrusion and displacement.
Extreme Weather Events – Eg – Increasing frequency of Category 4-5 cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Disruption of Monsoons – Erratic and unpredictable rainfall.
Ocean Acidification – Elevated CO₂ lowers pH, affecting coral reefs and fisheries. Eg – Mass bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef.
Biodiversity Decline – Species migration and extinction risks rise.
Intensification of feedback loops – Eg- Permafrost thaw releases methane, warming oceans release less CO₂, and forest dieback reduces carbon sinks
Expansion of arid zones – Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration and reduce soil moisture. Eg – Prolonged droughts in Horn of Africa
Disruption of Global Thermohaline Circulation – Eg- weakening of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
Hotter, drier conditions raise wildfire risks – Eg – Australian bushfires (2019-20) and California wildfires
The Kyoto Protocol was the first legally binding global framework mandating GHG reduction by industrialised nations.
Binding Emission Reduction Targets – Annex-I countries committed to reducing emissions by 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Allows developed countries to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing nations and earn carbon credits.
Joint Implementation (JI) – Developed nations can meet their Kyoto targets via emission-reduction projects in other Annex-I countries.
International Emissions Trading (IET) – countries with surplus emission units trade them with those exceeding their limits.
Other Measures
Enhancing Carbon Sinks through afforestation, reforestation and improved land management. Eg- Miyawaki method of Urban Forestry
Low-Carbon Technologies to reduce fossil-fuel use. Eg- EVs
Energy Efficiency – Efficiency standards, industrial retrofits, transport reforms and building codes reduce GHG intensity.
Policy Support for Green Finance – Eg- tax breaks, green bonds, climate insurance etc
Implementing these through enhanced national commitments, equitable climate finance and rapid decarbonization remains essential for achieving SDG 13 (Climate Action)
Photochemical smog is a secondary air pollutant formed when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to produce oxidants like ozone and create a brownish haze in urban atmospheres.
Effects of Photochemical Smog
Human Health Impacts – Causes respiratory irritation, asthma, reduced lung function and cardiovascular stress.
In 2021, air pollution caused 2.1 million deaths in India (State of Global Air Report 2024)
Crop Damage – Ozone leads to leaf chlorosis, reduced photosynthesis and lower yields. Eg- Wheat and soybean show high ozone sensitivity.
Material Degradation – PAN and ozone corrode rubber, plastics, textiles and paints.
Reduced Visibility – affect transport and aviation safety. Eg- Delhi in winter
Vehicular Emission Control –
Use catalytic converters to reduce Nitrogen and carbon monoxide emissions,
Expand EV network
Regulatory measures – Odd-even and congestion pricing (London Model)
Industrial Pollution Reduction – Installation of scrubbers, VOC capture systems.
Waste to energy – Eg- biofuels from agriculture waste in Punjab, Haryana
High-resolution air quality monitoring network at the construction site linked to automatic sprayers, mist cannons, or sprinklers to reduce dust
Expand Urban Green Infrastructure – Eg- Singapore’s green urban planning
Air Quality Forecasting & Alerts – Eg- GRAP-like measures during smog episodes.
Protocol to the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)
Sets national emission ceilings for SO₂, NOx, VOCs and ammonia (NH₃).
Binding country-specific reduction targets for harmful emissions.
Updated in 2012 to include fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon.
Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism for transparency and accountability
Adopting WHO’s 4 Pillar Strategy is essential to achieve Clean India
Expanding the knowledge base
Monitoring and reporting
Global leadership and coordination
Institutional capacity strengthening
Coastal Erosion refers to breaking down and carrying away of materials by sea. As per National Centre for Coastal Research, about 33.6% of Indian coast is eroding.
Causes
Cyclones and Storm Surges erode dunes and beaches. Eg- Bay of Bengal cyclone belts.
Climate-induced Sea-Level Rise submerges low-lying coasts. Eg- Sundarbans delta witnessing shoreline retreat.
Strong tidal flow and seasonal currents disturb sediment balance. Eg- West coast monsoonal erosion.
Loss of Natural Buffers – depletion of coral reefs, dunes or seagrass beds reduces wave dissipation. Eg- Reef loss around Lakshadweep.
Construction of Ports, Breakwaters and Jetties interrupt sediment transport, causing erosion downdrift. Eg- Ennore and Puducherry coastlines.
River Damming – Dams reduce sediment supply reaching deltas and beaches. Eg- Shrinkage of Godavari and Narmada deltas.
Sand Mining removes beach sediment. Eg- Severe erosion hotspots in Kerala.
Coastal Land Reclamation increases erosion by altering the shoreline. Eg- Reclaimed coasts around Mumbai.
Destruction of Mangroves eliminates natural wave barriers.
Pollution and Ecosystem Degradation reduce shoreline stability. Eg- Coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.
Effect
Loss of Coastal Habitats – Eg- Mangrove loss in the Sundarbans.
Saltwater Intrusion – degrade freshwater ecosystems. Eg- Salinisation of Andhra Pradesh coastal farmlands.
Loss of natural buffers heightens storm-surge and monsoon flooding risk. Eg- Erosion-induced flooding in Kerala’s low-lying coast.
Damage to Infrastructure – Roads, bridges and coastal installations become unstable due to subsidence. Eg – Road collapse incidents in Uttar Kannada (Karnataka).
Loss of Productive Land – Eg- Farmland abandonment in Tamil Nadu erosion belts.
Threat to critical infrastructure – Eg- offshore oil plants and windmills
Displacement of Coastal Communities due to Shrinking shorelines
Loss of Livelihoods – Fishing communities lose landing points and fish stocks.
Saline intrusion reduces drinking water availability and increases contamination risks.
Loss of Cultural Heritage – Eg- Threats to traditional coastal temples in Tamil Nadu.
Available coastal Management Techniques
Seawalls to block wave attack.
Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.
Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.
Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.
Ecological Restoration of Mined Coasts– Eg – Puducherry’s beach nourishment project.
Dune Stabilisation – Planting grasses and fencing dunes.
Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.
Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.
Beach cleanliness drives – Eg- Blue Flag Certification
Sediment Budgeting in Coastal Planning to ensure river-to-coast sediment flow is maintained.
Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors. Eg- ICZM projects in Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal.
Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.
Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) to collect nearshore coastal data for planning, designing, and maintaining coastal protection structures
Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.
Coastal erosion in India requires integrated, science-based and community-driven management
In 2024, EVs accounted for over 20% of new cars sold globally (17 million units). It increased by over 25% in 2024. EVs accounted for 7.5% of India’s total vehicle sales in 2024.
China, Europe, and the USA account for around 95% of all sales.
In Southeast Asia, sales grew nearly 50% in 2024.
Brazil doubled its sales to 125,000 units
Africa remains under 1% share, though sales more than doubled in 2024
India’s EV Targets by 2030
80% EV adoption in 2 & 3 wheelers
40% EV adoption in buses
30% EV adoption in private cars
Zero tailpipe emissions – EVs emit no CO₂, NOx or particulate matter during operation, unlike petrol/diesel vehicles.
Lower life-cycle emissions when powered by renewable sources (solar, wind, hydro)
Higher energy efficiency – EVs convert 85–90% of energy into motion, compared to 20–30% in ICE vehicles.
Less demand for petrol and diesel lowers emissions from mining, refining and transportation of fossil fuel.
Accelerating grid decarbonisation – EV charging encourages higher renewable power capacity.
Recycling and reuse of batteries reduces emissions from raw material extraction.
Environmental Benefits
Reduction in urban smog and air pollution
Helps achieve climate and SDG targets (SDG 13 & SDG 11)
Economic Benefits
Lower running and maintenance costs
Reduces oil import bill and saves foreign exchange
Generates green jobs in battery, EV, and charging sectors
Energy Security Benefits
Cuts dependence on imported crude oil
Promotes use of domestic renewable energy
Public Health Benefits
Decline in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases
Improved urban air quality
Technological Benefits
Boosts battery innovation, smart grids and V2G technologies
Strengthens Make in India and PLI manufacturing ecosystem
Urban & Social Benefits- Eg- Less noise pollution
High Initial Cost (20–30% costlier), limiting affordability for middle and lower-income groups.
Insufficient Charging Infrastructure – India has 1 public charging station per 135 EVs
India imports over 90% of its lithium-ion batteries, mainly from China.
Regulatory Uncertainty – Frequent policy shifts create confusion. Eg- Changes in import duties and tax regimes
Limited driving range leads to “range anxiety” among consumers.
Limited awareness of EV benefits and technology slows adoption.
Invest in advanced battery R&D such as solid-state and sodium-ion batteries.
Leverage National Critical Mineral Mission to boost domestic lithium exploration.
Expand Charging Infrastructure through PPP
Learn from Global Best Practices – Eg- Germany’s ELISA project
Integrate with global EV supply chains. Eg- lithium supply from Argentina
EVs are a cornerstone of low-carbon mobility and represent civilisational shift towards sustainability.
As per Ramsar Convention, wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”.
Initiated in 1985-86 for Conservation, restoration and sustainable management of wetlands to maintain ecological character and ecosystem services.
Implemented through MoEFCC and State Wetland Authorities,
It is merged with the National Lake conservation program under NPCA (2013).
Achievements of NWCA
Ramsar Site Expansion – India increased Ramsar sites to 94 wetlands (2025) with NWCP support.
Restoration Initiatives – Supported desiltation, sewage diversion and habitat improvement in degraded wetlands. Eg- Ecological restoration of Chilika Lake.
Financial Support: Central funding to states for priority wetlands has led to tangible improvements. Eg: Loktak Lake (Manipur) saw reduced weed infestation
Led to creation of Wetlands Rules, 2017 for legal protection.
Enabled formation of State Wetland Authorities and Management Plans.
Awareness Generation and Community Engagement – Eg- Initiatives like Wetland Mitras.
Integrated Management – Promoted catchment and water management approaches for ecological restoration.
Inadequate Funding restricted large-scale wetland rejuvenation.
Encroachment and pollution continue. Eg- Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)
Poor Inter-Agency Coordination – Multiplicity of urban, irrigation and forest agencies.
Private Ownership Barrier – Eg- 55% of India’s 24.24 lakh water bodies are privately owned as per the 2022-23 Water Body Census.
Land Use Conversion for housing, infrastructure and agriculture. Eg- India has lost nearly 30% of its wetlands in 3 decades due to urbanisation, pollution and farming.
Invasive Species Proliferation disrupts native biodiversity and oxygen balance. Eg- Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) chokes lakes and ponds across India.
Climate Change-Induced Hydrological Stress – Changing rainfall and sea-level rise disturb wetland hydrology. Eg- Sundarbans faces salinity intrusion
Policy Blind Spots – Wetlands excluded from urban master plans and infrastructure planning.
Chilika Lake (Odisha) – Asia’s largest brackish water lagoon and Irrawaddy dolphin habitat.
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) – Globally important migratory bird wetland.
Loktak Lake (Manipur) – World’s only lake with floating phumdis.
Wular Lake (Jammu & Kashmir) – One of India’s largest freshwater lakes.
Wetlands are critical natural infrastructure and key in realising SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).
Submergence of Low-Lying Coastal Areas – Eg- Large parts of the Kolkata, Mumbai, Kochi, Chennai
Enhanced Coastal Erosion – Eg- as per National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) report around 34% of India’s coastline is eroded
Salinity Intrusion into Aquifers & Rivers impacting drinking water and agriculture.
Mangroves & Wetlands like Sundarbans, Mahanadi delta wetlands, Gulf of Kachchh mangroves risk drowning and biodiversity loss.
Intensification of cyclones due to more moisture and heat from ocean warming.
Millions from deltaic regions may face climate-induced migration. Around 3.6 million people have been displaced in South Asia over the past decade. (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre)
Ports & Coastal Infrastructure face higher flooding risk, economic losses, and costly adaptation needs.
Island Submergence – Eg- Sundarbans (Ghoramara, Sagar) and Lakshadweep (Chetlat, Amini, Kavaratti)
Maldives – Existential Threat as 80% of land below 1 metre
Bangladesh – Massive Displacement in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta
Sri Lanka – damage to fisheries and tourism economy.
Myanmar – The Irrawaddy delta—a food-producing zone—faces salinity, crop losses and intensified cyclone impact.
Indonesia – Severe Impacts on Islands & Cities. Eg- Jakarta already sinking
East African Coast – Countries like Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique would face mangrove loss, storm surges, and fishery declines.
Increased Maritime Instability – Changes in ocean temperature and circulation will affect monsoons, fisheries, and regional climate systems across the Indian Ocean basin.
Way Forward
Seawalls to block wave attack.
Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.
Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.
Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.
Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.
Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.
Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors.
Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.
Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.
Strengthening coastal resilience and climate mitigation is essential to safeguard communities and advance SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water).