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Subject: Environment

  • [16th April 2026] The Hindu OpED: Dry days: On rainfall deficit forecast

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] What are the major challenges faced by Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.Linkage: Rainfall deficit directly stresses irrigation systems and reservoirs. It helps structure answers on water management under weak monsoon conditions.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India is entering a potentially risky monsoon year with the India Meteorological Department forecasting an 8% rainfall deficit (below normal) for the upcoming southwest monsoon. This is significant because it marks a sharp reversal after two consecutive years of surplus rainfall, raising concerns of drought-like conditions. 

    What explains the rising uncertainty in India’s monsoon predictions?

    1. Forecast Variability: IMD predicts 8% deficit with ±5% error margin, indicating inherent uncertainty.
    2. Historical Underestimation: IMD often forecasts “normal” but outcomes lean towards drought conditions.
    3. Lexical Limitation: IMD avoids term “drought,” classifies rainfall below 90% as “deficient,” masking severity.
    4. Case Evidence: 2015 forecast (93% LPA) resulted in 86% actual rainfall, showing prediction gaps.

    How does El Niño structurally impact Indian monsoon patterns?

    1. Ocean Heating Threshold: Central Pacific warming beyond 1°C correlates with weak monsoons.
    2. Statistical Link: 9 out of 16 El Niño years since 1950 resulted in deficient rainfall.
    3. Seasonal Impact: Expected suppression in second half (Aug-Sept), critical for crop maturity.
    4. Temporal Sensitivity: Impact depends on timing of warming, not just occurrence.

    Why is 2019 an important counter-example to El Niño effects?

    2019 is a crucial counter-example to El Niño effects because it defied the traditional, strong inverse correlation between Pacific warming and Indian monsoon rainfall. Despite the development of an El Niño-like state, India experienced above-normal rainfall, highlighting climate system non-linearity and reducing reliance on a single forecasting factor.

    1. Forecast Failure: IMD predicted deficit due to El Niño-like signals.
    2. Outcome Reversal: India experienced above-normal rainfall.
    3. Reason: Ocean warming was weaker than expected, reducing impact.
    4. Inference: Highlights non-linearity and unpredictability in climate systems.

    What role does the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) play in moderating risks?

    The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) moderates climate risks by acting as a “seesaw” of sea surface temperatures, where a positive IOD (+IOD) can offset the drying, drought-inducing impacts of El Niño on the Indian monsoon. It acts as a risk modifier, where +IOD increases rainfall in East Africa and India, while negative IOD (-IOD) increases drought risks in these regions. 

    1. Counter Mechanism: IOD may offset drying impact of El Niño.
    2. Conditional Effectiveness: Depends on strength and synchronization with monsoon cycle.
    3. Policy Relevance: Adds uncertainty buffer, but not reliable mitigation.

    How do geopolitical and economic factors compound monsoon risks?

    1. West Asia Instability: “War-like clouds” threaten fertilizer and gas supply chains.
    2. Input Cost Pressure: Fertilizer shortages may raise agricultural costs.
    3. Farmer Sentiment: Weak rains + input shocks can reduce sowing confidence.
    4. Macro Impact: Potential rise in food inflation and rural distress.

    What immediate policy responses are necessary to mitigate potential drought impacts?

    1. Fertilizer Security: Stockpiling and supply chain stabilization required.
    2. Water Management: Ensures equitable reservoir distribution, especially stressed regions.
    3. Agricultural Advisory: Provides timely sowing guidance and crop planning.
    4. Preparedness Approach: Shifts from reactive to anticipatory governance.
    5. Groundwater Conservation: Rejuvenate traditional water harvesting structures, such as ponds and tanks, and encourage artificial recharge, especially in over-exploited areas.

    Conclusion

    The anticipated rainfall deficit is not merely a climatic fluctuation but a systemic risk combining meteorological uncertainty, historical forecasting limitations, and geopolitical disruptions. Effective response requires early institutional preparedness, adaptive agricultural strategies, and resilient resource management frameworks.

  • Himalayan Vegetation Shifting Upwards 

    Why in the News?

    • A study published in Ecography shows that alpine vegetation in the Himalayas is shifting upward due to climate change, warming, and reduced snow depth.

    Key Findings

    • Study period: 1999 to 2022 (24 years)
    • Regions studied: Ladakh, Reckong, Ngari, Manthang (Nepal), Khumbu (Mt Everest region), and Bhutan

    Magnitude of Shift

    • Maximum shift: 6.95 metres/year (Manthang, Nepal)
    • Minimum shift: 1.42 metres/year (Khumbu region)
      • Indicates rapid ecological response to warming

    What is Alpine Vegetation

    • Found at: 4,100–5,000 m above mean sea level
    • Above this:
      • Sub-nival zone (5,000–5,500 m) → sparse vegetation
      • >5,500 m → snow, glaciers, rocks

    Causes of Upward Shift

    1. Rising Temperature

    • Himalayas warming faster than global average

    2. Reduced Snow Depth

    • Less snow cover → longer growing season

    3. Climate Change

    • Changes in: Temperature, Moisture, and Nutrient availability

    Greening vs Browning

    Greening

    • Increase in vegetation cover
    • More leafy growth
    • Observed in most regions

    Browning

    • Decline in vegetation / more woody shrubs
    • Seen in: Eastern Himalayas (Khumbu, Bhutan)
    • Main reason: Changes in precipitation patterns
    [2014] If you travel through the Himalayas, you are Iikely to see which of the following plants naturally growing there? 
    1. Oak 
    2. Rhododendron 
    3. Sandalwood 
    Select the correct answer using the code given below 
    [A] 1 and 2 only [B] 3 only [C] 1 and 3 only [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • [15th April 2026] The Hindu OpED: Mapping the legislative vacuum in India’s heat crisis

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.Linkage: The PYQ tests environmental governance + mitigation frameworks, similar to heat crisis requiring policy and institutional response. Both involve anthropogenic environmental stress disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations, demanding regulatory and welfare interventions.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s heat crisis reflects the intersection of climate change, labour vulnerability, and governance gaps. The absence of enforceable legal protections exposes structural inequalities. The issue demands integration of climate adaptation, occupational safety, and constitutional rights.

    Why has extreme heat transformed into a systemic national crisis?

    1. Geographical Expansion: Heatwaves now affect coastal and temperate regions, unlike earlier concentration in arid zones.
    2. Rising Vulnerability: Over 57% of districts classified as heat-prone, indicating nationwide exposure.
    3. Demographic Impact: 400-490 million informal workers face direct livelihood risks.
    4. Climate Shift: Transition from seasonal variability to persistent extreme temperature regimes.

    How does heat disproportionately affect informal and vulnerable workers?

    1. Cooling Inequality: Informal workers lack access to cooling infrastructure, unlike affluent populations.
    2. Productivity Loss: Even minor temperature rise leads to significant income decline.
    3. Occupational Exposure: Construction workers, street vendors, sanitation workers face direct heat stress.
    4. Health Risks: Increased incidence of heatstroke, burns, dehydration, especially in waste-handling sectors.
    5. Climate-Caste Nexus: Marginalised communities disproportionately engaged in high-exposure occupations.

    What evidence highlights the severity of ground-level impacts?

    1. Sanitation Workers: Exposure to toxic waste creates micro-climates up to 5°C hotter than surroundings.
    2. Physical Injuries: Reports of burns due to handling heated waste without protective gear.
    3. Economic Impact: Vendors face decline in customers and perishability of goods, reducing income.
    4. Gig Workers: Algorithmic penalties discourage rest during extreme heat alerts.

    What are the key legislative and institutional gaps?

    1. Factories Act, 1948: Covers only indoor workers, excludes outdoor labour.
    2. Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020: Lacks enforceable standards for heat exposure.
    3. Discretionary Governance: Section 23 of OSHWC Code, 2020 allows government notification but no mandatory safeguards.
      1. Empowers the appropriate government to declare standards for working conditions, including safety measures.
      2. It allows issuing regulations for occupational safety, including those related to environmental conditions like heat.
      3. However, it is discretionary in nature, meaning:
        1. It does not mandate compulsory heat-protection standards.
        2. It does not ensure enforceable rights for workers, especially outdoor workers.
    4. Absence in Disaster List: Heatwaves not included in Notified National Disaster list, limiting funding.
    5. Fiscal Constraints: While states can use up to 10% of their State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for localized disasters, they cannot access the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)

    How does the crisis reflect ‘thermal injustice’?

    1. Class Disparity: Heat is inconvenience for affluent, existential threat for poor.
    2. Labour Inequity: Workers forced to choose between health and livelihood.
    3. Policy Exclusion: Informal workers excluded from adaptation strategies.
    4. Urban Inequality: Lack of cooling infrastructure in public spaces worsens vulnerability.

    What policy and governance reforms are required?

    1. Legal Enforcement: Convert heat advisories into binding mandates for districts.
    2. Heat Index Adoption: Combine temperature and humidity for realistic heat assessment.
    3. Occupational Safety: Mandate work-rest cycles and PPE provisions.
    4. Urban Infrastructure: Ensure cooling shelters, water kiosks.
    5. Gig Economy Regulation: Prohibit algorithmic penalties during heat alerts.
    6. Financial Compensation: Introduce income-loss compensation frameworks.
    7. Insurance Models: Expand schemes like parametric heat insurance.

    How can disaster management frameworks be strengthened?

    1. Disaster Classification: Include heatwaves in National Disaster List (2026-31 cycle).
    2. Funding Access: Unlock National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF).
    3. Policy Integration: Align labour laws with climate adaptation strategies.
    4. Institutional Coordination: Integrate IMD alerts with labour and urban governance.

    Conclusion

    India’s heat crisis demands a transition from advisory governance to enforceable rights-based frameworks, integrating climate resilience, labour protection, and social justice. Policy response must prioritise vulnerable populations and institutional accountability.

  • [14th April 2026] The Hindu OpED: Parched again: On Bengaluru’s drinking water woes

    Why in the News?

    Bengaluru is facing an acute groundwater crisis driven by over-extraction, weak recharge systems, and rising urban demand. The issue reflects a deeper structural imbalance between natural resource availability and urban growth patterns.

    Why is Bengaluru facing acute groundwater stress despite overall state-level improvement?

    1. Over-extraction: Groundwater withdrawal at 378% in Bengaluru East Taluka exceeds sustainable limits; Karnataka average at 66%.
    2. Hydrogeological Constraints: Crystalline rock formations store limited water and recharge slowly.
    3. Urban Demand Concentration: High-density zones like tech parks and apartments increase per-capita consumption.
    4. Surface Water Dependence: Increasing reliance on Cauvery water, involving high economic and infrastructural costs.

    How has unplanned urbanisation aggravated the crisis?

    1. Loss of Recharge Zones: Built-up areas prevent rainwater percolation; example: concretisation of urban landscapes.
    2. Sealing of Land: Preference for grey infrastructure reduces groundwater replenishment.
    3. Demand-Supply Mismatch: Rapid population growth without proportional infrastructure expansion.
    4. Ecological Degradation: Decline in lakes and wetlands disrupts natural hydrological cycles.

    What are the governance and policy gaps in water management?

    1. Fragmented Management: Lack of integration between pipeline supply, groundwater, and wastewater systems.
    2. Inefficient Distribution: High transmission losses in pipeline networks.
    3. Regulatory Failure: Weak enforcement against over-extraction of groundwater.
    4. Project Inefficiency: Government scheme (775 MLD supply to 110 villages) achieved only partial coverage.

    What are the socio-economic implications of the crisis?

    1. Tanker Economy Dependence: Citizens rely on expensive private water tankers.
    2. Inequality in Access: Vulnerable populations face disproportionate water stress.
    3. Rising Costs: High cost of Cauvery water expansion passed to consumers.
    4. Urban Vulnerability: Expansion of crisis to new areas like Koramangala and Hebbal indicates systemic risk.

    What measures have been taken and why are they insufficient?

    1. Treated Wastewater Use: BWSSB using sewage water to recharge lakes.
    2. Infrastructure Projects: Partial success in water supply expansion schemes.
    3. Short-term Focus: Lack of long-term aquifer management strategies.
    4. Absence of Integration: No unified approach to water cycle management.

    Why is the ‘Sponge City’ model critical for Bengaluru?

    1. Rainwater Capture: Restores lake-well connectivity to absorb monsoon runoff.
    2. Recharge Enhancement: Increases groundwater replenishment capacity.
    3. Urban Planning Integration: Aligns land-use with hydrological capacity.
    4. Reduced Surface Sealing: Encourages permeable surfaces and green infrastructure.

    Conclusion

    Bengaluru’s crisis reflects a governance failure rather than a resource deficit. Sustainable urban water management requires integration of supply systems, strict regulation, and a shift towards nature-based solutions like the sponge city model.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis?

    Linkage: Technologies addressing real-world crises like freshwater scarcity are frequently tested in Prelims (concepts) and Mains (application-based analysis). The Bengaluru water crisis exemplifies this trend, linking urban governance failure with the need for alternative technologies like wastewater recycling, desalination, and aquifer recharge.

  • Indus River Dolphin  

    Why in the News?

    • Conservation reserves, citizen science, and habitat protection efforts are helping the Indus River Dolphin population recover in India, particularly in the Beas River.

    About the Indus River Dolphin

    • Scientific Name: Platanista minor
    • Common Name: Indus River Dolphin
    • Type: Freshwater river dolphin
    • One of the rarest mammals in the world
    • IUCN Status is Endangered

    Distribution

    • Primary Habitat: Indus River system (Pakistan)
    • India:
      • Beas River (Punjab) — small remnant population
    • Earlier found across:
      • Indus tributaries (Ravi, Sutlej, Chenab, Jhelum)

    Physical Appearance

    • Long, pointed snout
    • Visible teeth even when mouth is closed
    • Flexible neck (rare among dolphins)
    • Small dorsal fin
    [2019] Consider the following pairs: Wildlife Naturally found in 
    1. Blue-finned Mahseer: Cauvery River 
    2. Irrawaddy Dolphin: Chambal River 
    3. Rusty-spotted Cat: Eastern Ghats 
    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? 
    [A] 1 and 2 only [B] 2 and 3 only [C] 1 and 3 only [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • Kashmir Scientists Cultivate Rare Morel Mushrooms 

    Why in the News?

    • Scientists at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST), Srinagar successfully cultivated Morel mushrooms (Morchella) in controlled conditions for the first time.
    • Considered a major scientific breakthrough due to the mushroom’s complex growth requirements.

    About Morel Mushrooms (Morchella)

    • Scientific name: Morchella
    • Local name (Kashmir): Kangaech
    • Type: Rare edible wild mushroom
    • Habitat:
      • High-elevation forests
      • Appears during short rainy season
    • Market Price: ₹15,000 to ₹40,000 per kg (one of the world’s most expensive mushrooms)

    Why Morels Are Expensive

    • Naturally grows in very specific environmental conditions
    • Short harvesting window
    • Difficult to locate in dense forests
    • Labour-intensive collection
    • High global demand in gourmet cuisine

    Cultivation Methods Achieved

    • Polyhouse cultivation (Controlled environment)
    • Open-field cultivation (Natural conditions simulation)
    [2022] With reference to ‘Gucchi’ sometimes mentioned in the news, consider the following statements: 
    1 It is a fungus. 
    2 It grows in some Himalayan forest areas. 
    3 It is commercially cultivated in the Himalayan foothills of north-eastern India. 
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
    (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3

  • Global concerns vs national interest: Why India lost interest in hosting COP 33

    Why in the News?

    India’s decision to step back from hosting Conference of the Parties (COP) 33 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)  marks a significant shift from its earlier proactive climate diplomacy stance. This is notable because India had emerged as a key voice of the Global South under the Paris framework. Yet it is now showing hesitation amid growing dissatisfaction with inequitable climate burdens, stalled climate finance, and pressure to adopt emissions pathways misaligned with its developmental needs. 

    Why did India initially show interest in hosting COP33?

    1. Climate Leadership: Positioned India as a leading voice of the Global South in climate negotiations, especially post-Paris Agreement.
    2. Diplomatic Visibility: Enhanced India’s global stature by hosting a major multilateral platform.
    3. Policy Influence: Enabled shaping of negotiation agendas, especially on climate finance and equity.
      1. International Solar Alliance (ISA): India successfully pushed solar energy as a central solution for developing countries, leading to a global coalition focused on affordable solar deployment.
      2. Climate Justice Narrative: India consistently emphasized “climate justice” and equity, ensuring that historical responsibility of developed nations remained part of COP discussions.
      3. CBDR Principle Reinforcement: During negotiations, India defended the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), resisting attempts to dilute obligations of developed countries.
      4. Climate Finance Pressure: India played a key role in pushing developed nations to commit to the $100 billion annual climate finance target, keeping finance at the core of COP agendas.
      5. Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE): India introduced the LiFE initiative, shifting discourse from only industrial emissions to sustainable consumption patterns globally.
      6. Coal Phase-down Language (COP26): India influenced the final Glasgow text by changing “phase-out of coal” to “phase-down”, reflecting developmental concerns of emerging economies. 
    4. Continuity of Engagement: Built upon India’s increasing activism in global climate discourse.

    What factors led to India losing interest in hosting COP33?

    1. Shifting Global Context: Reflects a recalibration where national interests increasingly outweigh symbolic global leadership roles.
    2. Inequitable Burden Sharing: Highlights dissatisfaction with developed countries not fulfilling climate finance commitments.
      1. $100 Billion Climate Finance Gap: Developed countries failed to fully deliver the promised $100 billion annually by 2020, creating trust deficits in negotiations.
      2. COP15: Copenhagen Accord: Initial finance commitments were non-binding, shifting burden of action onto developing countries without assured support.
      3. Mitigation Pressure vs Finance Deficit: Countries like India are pushed for net-zero targets, while finance and technology transfer remain inadequate.
      4. Adaptation Funding Imbalance: Majority of funds directed toward mitigation, while vulnerable nations face shortages for adaptation needs (e.g., climate-resilient infrastructure).
      5. Loss and Damage Delays: COP27: Despite agreement on a fund, actual disbursement mechanisms remain unclear, delaying support to vulnerable nations.
      6. High Cost of Green Transition: Developing countries bear higher relative costs for transitioning energy systems without concessional finance. 
    3. Developmental Constraints: Emphasizes India’s need to prioritize economic growth, energy access, and poverty alleviation.
    4. Geopolitical Tensions: Indicates complications arising from global political dynamics affecting consensus-building.
    5. Negotiation Fatigue: Suggests diminishing returns from hosting without tangible gains in policy outcomes.

    How has the Paris Agreement framework influenced this shift?

    The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty adopted in 2015 (COP21) under the UNFCCC, aiming to limit global warming to well below 2°C-preferably 1.5°C-compared to pre-industrial levels. It operates on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate actions (NDCs) submitted by countries.

    1. Universal Commitments: Ensures all countries undertake climate actions, increasing pressure on developing nations like India.
    2. Equity Dilution: Weakens earlier differentiation between developed and developing countries under CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities).
    3. Increased Accountability: Subjects countries to greater scrutiny without guaranteed financial or technological support.
    4. Implementation Challenges: Creates domestic pressure due to ambitious targets not matched by international assistance.

    What is the significance of the IPCC AR7 angle in the debate?

    The IPCC Seventh Assessment Report (AR7) cycle, which began in July 2023, will produce three working group reports and a synthesis report scheduled for completion by late 2029. It focuses on climate science, impacts, and mitigation, with key additions including a Special Report on Cities, a methodology report on Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR), and increased representation from the Global South.

    1. Upcoming Assessment Report: The IPCC’s Seventh Assessment Report (AR7) is expected to shape future climate policy directions.
    2. Scientific Pressure: Likely to push for stricter emission reduction pathways globally.
    3. Policy Implications: May constrain policy flexibility for developing countries.
    4. Strategic Timing: Hosting COP33 before AR7 could place India in a difficult negotiating position without clarity on future frameworks.

    How do developing countries perceive current climate negotiations?

    1. Equity Concerns: Argue that historical emitters must bear greater responsibility.
    2. Finance Deficit: Highlight the failure of developed countries to deliver promised $100 billion annually.
    3. Policy Imbalance: Emphasize that mitigation burdens are disproportionately shifted to developing economies.
    4. Adaptation Needs: Stress insufficient focus on adaptation and resilience for vulnerable regions.

    What are the broader implications for global climate governance?

    1. Fragmentation Risk: Signals weakening consensus in multilateral climate negotiations.
    2. Rise of Nationalism: Reflects prioritization of domestic economic interests over global commitments.
    3. Global South Assertion: Indicates stronger bargaining by developing nations.
    4. Institutional Challenges: Questions effectiveness of COP platforms in delivering equitable outcomes. 

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

    Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of global climate governance under UNFCCC, including COP outcomes, climate finance, equity, and India’s negotiation stance. It directly connects to India’s evolving stance in climate negotiations influencing its COP33 position.

  • IUCN Uplists Emperor Penguin and Antarctic Fur Seal to Endangered

    Why in the News?

    The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has uplisted the Emperor Penguin and Antarctic Fur Seal to the Endangered category, citing severe impacts of climate change and habitat loss.

    About Emperor Penguin

    • Largest penguin species in the world
    • Found only in Antarctica
    • Considered sentinel species of Antarctic ecosystem
    • IUCN Status: Endangered

    Antarctic Fur Seal

    About

    • Marine mammal
    • Member of eared seal family
    • IUCN Status: Endangered

    Habitat

    • Antarctic and Sub Antarctic waters
    • Major breeding ground:
      • South Georgia Island

    Key Threats

    • Climate change reducing krill population
    • Ocean warming pushing krill deeper
    • Food shortage for seals
    [2011] The ‘Red Data Books’ published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of:
    (a) Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
    (b) Threatened plant and animal species.
    (c) Protected sites for conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
    (d) None of the above

  • Puri Airport Proposal Rejected Over Migratory Bird Risk

    Why in the News?

    The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has recommended against setting up the Shree Jagannath International Airport in Puri, citing risk from migratory birds and proximity to Chilika Lake Ramsar site.

    Key Highlights

    • Proposed Airport: Shree Jagannath International Airport
    • Location: Sipasurubali village, Puri (Odisha)
    • Land Required: 471.401 hectares
    • Near: Chilika Lake (Ramsar Wetland)

    WII warned:

    • Migratory birds pose bird strike risk to aircraft
    • Project may threaten:
      • Migratory birds
      • Olive Ridley turtles
      • Irrawaddy dolphins

    About Chilika Lake

    • Location: Odisha
    • Type: Brackish water lagoon
    • Status: Ramsar Site (Wetland of International Importance)
    • Asia’s largest coastal lagoon
    • Important habitat for:
      • Migratory birds
      • Irrawaddy dolphins
      • Fish biodiversity

    About Wildlife Institute of India (WII)

    • Established: 1982
    • Location: Dehradun
    • Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
    • Role:
      • Wildlife research
      • Conservation advice
      • Environmental assessments
    [2019] Consider the following pairs: 1 Blue-finned Mahseer : Cauvery River 2 Irrawaddy Dolphin : Chambal River 3 Rusty-spotted Cat : Eastern Ghats How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only one and three (d) None

  • Climate change reshaping disease patterns, straining health systems, finds report 

    Why in the News?

    Climate change is no longer a distant environmental issue; it is already affecting public health in India. The report “Under the Weather: India’s Climate-Health Challenges” shows a clear shift, from occasional disease outbreaks to a larger, ongoing health crisis caused by changing climate patterns. With nearly 40% of districts at high risk from extreme weather events, it highlights a turning point where climate and health policies must be addressed together, not separately.

    Why is climate change now being seen as a public health crisis in India?

    1. Health-risk multiplier: Climate variability amplifies both communicable and non-communicable diseases, increasing overall disease burden and healthcare pressure.
      1. Vector-borne diseases (Communicable): Rising temperatures and erratic rainfall expand mosquito habitats, increasing diseases like dengue and malaria. Example: Himachal Pradesh (Shimla) and parts of Jammu & Kashmir have recently reported dengue cases, regions that were earlier too cold for such outbreaks.
      2. Water-borne diseases (Communicable): Flooding contaminates water sources, leading to outbreaks of cholera and hepatitis. Case study: Kerala floods (2018) led to spikes in leptospirosis and diarrhoeal diseases due to stagnant and contaminated water.
      3. Heat-related illnesses (Non-communicable): Extreme heat increases heat strokes, dehydration, and cardiovascular stress. Case study: India Heatwave (2015) caused over 2,000 deaths, especially in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, overwhelming hospitals.
      4. Air pollution-linked diseases (Non-communicable): Climate change worsens air quality (e.g., higher PM2.5), increasing respiratory and cardiac illnesses. Example: Delhi NCR sees seasonal spikes in asthma, COPD, and heart conditions, especially during winter inversion periods.
      5. Maternal and child health impacts: Heat stress and pollution increase risks in pregnancy and early childhood. Case study: Studies in South Asia show higher preterm births during heatwaves; infants are more vulnerable due to poor heat regulation.
      6. Livelihood-health linkage: Climate shocks reduce income, leading to malnutrition and weakened immunity. Example: Drought-prone regions of Maharashtra (Marathwada) show increased child malnutrition and related diseases during repeated drought years. 
    2. Scale of vulnerability: Nearly 40% of districts face high risk from extreme weather events, indicating systemic exposure.
    3. Shift in disease ecology: Warmer temperatures and erratic rainfall expand disease vectors into new geographies.
    4. Systemic disruption: Climate events impact livelihoods, healthcare access, and infrastructure simultaneously.

    How is climate change reshaping the disease landscape in India?

    1. Vector-borne expansion: Changing rainfall patterns and warming temperatures expand diseases like dengue and malaria into previously unaffected regions such as Shimla, Himalayan foothills, and Jammu & Kashmir; Pune identified as a major dengue hotspot.
    2. Water-borne diseases: Increased flooding triggers outbreaks of cholera and hepatitis, linked to contaminated water sources.
      1. Example: Assam floods (2022) led to a surge in acute diarrhoeal diseases and suspected hepatitis cases, as submerged sanitation systems contaminated water sources across districts like Barpeta and Nagaon.
      2. Example: Mumbai floods (2005) triggered outbreaks of leptospirosis, hepatitis A, and gastroenteritis, due to overflow of drainage systems and exposure to polluted water.
    3. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Heat exposure increases cardiovascular mortality, while air pollution worsens respiratory illnesses and chronic conditions.
      1. A meta-analysis in Environmental Research shows that each 1°C rise above ~29°C increases all-cause mortality by ~3.9%, highlighting strong cardiovascular and systemic stress due to heat.
    4. Climate-sensitive transmission: Altered environmental conditions change pathogen survival and transmission dynamics.
      1. Cholera bacteria survival: Warmer sea surface temperatures and plankton blooms support Vibrio cholerae survival. Example: West Bengal coastal regions (Sundarbans) report recurrent cholera outbreaks linked to changing coastal water conditions.

    Which populations are disproportionately affected and why?

    1. Vulnerable groups: Rural populations, informal workers, women, and children face highest risks due to limited adaptive capacity.
    2. Occupational exposure: Outdoor workers experience productivity loss and health risks; India lost an estimated 160 billion labour hours in 2021 due to heat exposure.
    3. Gendered impacts: Women face higher exposure and health burdens due to socio-economic constraints and caregiving roles.
    4. Inequality deepening: Climate impacts exacerbate existing socio-economic inequalities and health disparities.

    What are the direct and indirect health impacts of climate change?

    1. Heat stress: Extreme heat linked to 16% increase in odds of preterm birth; increases risks for infants and pregnant women.
    2. Air pollution linkages: Rising PM2.5 levels associated with hypertension, pre-eclampsia, and gestational blood pressure disorders.Child vulnerability: Infants have limited thermoregulation, increasing susceptibility to heat stress and respiratory illnesses.
    3. Livelihood-health nexus: Climate shocks reduce income and productivity, reinforcing cycles of vulnerability.

    How does climate change disrupt healthcare systems and access?

    1. Infrastructure damage: Floods and cyclones damage hospitals, disrupt supply chains of medicines and vaccines.
    2. Access barriers: Remote areas face healthcare exclusion during disasters, leading to untreated illnesses.
    3. Service disruption: Climate events reduce continuity of care and strain emergency response systems.
    4. System overload: Increased disease burden overwhelms already fragile public health infrastructure.

    What measures have been taken to address climate-health challenges?

    1. Policy integration: Initiatives like the National Action Plan on Climate Change and Human Health aim to align climate and health strategies.
    2. Localized adaptation:State-level action plans focus on region-specific vulnerabilities and responses.
      1. Heat Action Plans (HAPs): State and city-level plans customize responses to local heat risks through early warnings, cooling centers, and hospital preparedness. Example: Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (Gujarat)—India’s first HAP, reduced heatwave mortality by introducing early warning systems, public advisories, and training for healthcare workers.
      2. Flood-resilient health planning: States prone to floods integrate disease surveillance and emergency health response. Example: Odisha developed disaster-resilient health infrastructure and rapid response systems after the 1999 super cyclone, ensuring minimal disease outbreaks during recent cyclones like Fani (2019).
      3. Vector-borne disease control: Region-specific strategies target local disease patterns and climate conditions. Example: Kerala uses pre-monsoon mosquito control drives and decentralized surveillance to manage dengue and malaria risks.
      4. Drought and nutrition linkage: States facing water stress integrate health and nutrition interventions. Example: Maharashtra (Marathwada) implements nutrition programs and water management schemes to address drought-linked malnutrition and health issues. 
    3. Early warning systems: Expansion of climate-linked disease surveillance and forecasting mechanisms.
    4. Cross-sectoral convergence: Efforts to integrate health, environment, and disaster management frameworks.

    What are the key gaps and challenges in India’s response?

    1. Data fragmentation: Lack of disaggregated data linking climate events to health outcomes limits targeted interventions.
    2. Funding constraints: Insufficient investment in climate-resilient healthcare infrastructure.
    3. Awareness deficit: Limited public understanding reduces adaptive capacity and risk preparedness.
    4. Governance gaps: Weak coordination across government, private sector, and civil society. 

    Conclusion

    Climate change is transforming India’s health landscape from episodic crises to a chronic systemic challenge. Addressing this requires integrating climate resilience into public health systems, strengthening data-driven governance, and prioritizing vulnerable populations to ensure equitable health outcomes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected?

    Linkage: Climate change is a recurring GS-3 theme, with UPSC repeatedly focusing on its impacts, vulnerability, and disasters. This article extends that dimension by linking it to public health risks and disease patterns, enriching answers with current relevance.