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Subject: Local Self-Government

  • The urban nightmare: a fire with no escape 

    Why in the News?

    Repeated urban fire tragedies, in Lucknow and Delhi, are rooted in illegal construction, weak enforcement, and fragmented urban local governance. There is a growing need of empowering local bodies as the structural fix.

    Why do fire tragedies keep recurring despite each one prompting an inquiry?

    1. Illegal construction persists: Buildings that violate fire safety norms continue to be built and occupied because enforcement action rarely follows a violation before a tragedy occurs.
    2. Fragmented authority: Fire safety clearance, building plan approval, and municipal enforcement are split across different agencies, none of which holds end to end accountability for a building’s safety compliance.
    3. Post-tragedy pattern: Each fire triggers an inquiry and short term crackdown, but enforcement lapses again once public attention moves on, indicating the response is reactive rather than preventive.
    4. Weak local body capacity: Urban local bodies, the level of government closest to individual buildings, lack the staffing and financial autonomy to conduct sustained enforcement.

    How does fragmented urban governance weaken accountability?

    1. Multiple agencies: Urban functions are divided among municipal corporations, development authorities, water boards, PWDs and transport agencies.
    2. No single authority: Responsibility is dispersed, making accountability difficult after disasters.
    3. Weak Urban Local Bodies: Municipal corporations have responsibilities but limited administrative and financial powers.
    4. State dominance: Major urban decisions remain under State governments rather than elected city governments.
    5. Governance vacuum: Citizens face one government, but responsibility is split among several agencies.

    Why is empowering Urban Local Bodies more important than launching new schemes?

    1. Constitutional basis: The 74th Constitutional Amendment, 1992 envisages democratic and empowered urban governance.
    2. Authority mismatch: Local bodies have functions but lack adequate powers and resources.
    3. Professional management: Cities require specialised urban planning and enforcement capacity.
    4. Clear accountability: One authority must be responsible for urban safety and regulation.
    5. Fearless enforcement: Building and fire safety laws must be insulated from political influence.

    Conclusion

    Illegal construction and weak enforcement are the proximate causes, but fragmented urban local governance is the structural one, since no single empowered local authority is accountable for preventing violations before they turn fatal. Empowering urban local bodies with real enforcement authority and resources is the fix the piece argues has been avoided.

    Back2Basics

    International fire safety and urban risk management rely on universally recognized frameworks and codes established by global organizations. These function as the benchmark for local building laws worldwide.

    Global Core Frameworks

    1. IFSS-CP (International Fire Safety Standards – Common Principles): Developed by a global coalition and published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), this framework provides a benchmark for life safety. It sets 5 Universal Pillars for building design and management:
      1. Prevention: Minimizing ignition risks.
      2. Detection and Communication: Fast warning systems.
      3. Occupant Protection: Safe, unhindered evacuation routes.
      4. Containment: Sectioning buildings with fire-resistant barriers to stop spread.
      5. Extinguishment: Active suppression systems (sprinklers/suppression).
    2. ISO Fire Safety Standards: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sets global rules for equipment and risk management. This includes ISO 7240 (fire detection/alarm systems) and ISO 31000 (integrating systemic risk management directly into urban planning).

    Widely Adopted National/Model Codes

    Many countries explicitly adopt or adapt established model codes into their local municipal bylaws:

    1. NFPA Codes (USA): Developed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), these are the most globally replicated fire codes.
      • NFPA 1 (Fire Code): Total oversight rules governing building safety, hazardous materials, and structural fire protection.
      • NFPA 101 (Life Safety Code): The absolute blueprint for building design, specifying safe egress, travel distances to exits, and minimum corridor widths based on occupancy types.
    2. International Building Code (IBC): Published by the International Code Council (ICC), the IBC integrates strict structural engineering rules with active fire protection. It mandates specific automatic sprinkler thresholds (NFPA 13 standards) depending on building height and density.
    3. British Standards (UK): BS 9999 is an international code of practice for fire safety in building design and management. It uses a flexible, risk-based approach that balances architectural design with automated safety measures.

    PYQ RELEVANCE

    [UPSC 2020] The strength and sustenance of local institutions in India has shifted from their formative phase of ‘Functions, Functionaries and Funds’ to the contemporary stage of ‘Functionality’. Highlight the critical challenges faced by local institutions in terms of their functionality in recent times.

    Linkage: The PYQ examines whether Urban Local Bodies have the functional capacity and accountability to deliver effective urban governance. The article argues that repeated urban fire disasters stem from fragmented governance, weak Urban Local Bodies, poor inter-agency coordination, and lack of accountability, showing that the real challenge is the functionality of urban institutions rather than the absence of laws.

  • West Bengal strips panchayat pradhans of registration and cheque signing powers, reopening the devolution debate

    Why in the News

    West Bengal Government has stripped elected panchayat pradhans of birth and death registration powers and cheque signing authority, transferring them to bureaucrats. The state cites the need to curb corruption after the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) exercise, but the move raises questions about devolution of powers to elected local bodies.

    Why does shifting these powers to bureaucrats raise a devolution question?

    1. Constitutional mandate: The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 envisages panchayats as institutions of local self-government with functional autonomy, not merely implementing agencies for state bureaucrats.
    2. Elected versus appointed authority: Registration and cheque signing powers are everyday functions through which an elected pradhan exercises visible authority over local administration, and removing them shifts real power to an appointed official.
    3. Corruption justification: The stated reason, curbing corruption, does not explain why oversight rather than outright transfer of power was not chosen as the remedy.
    4. Precedent risk: A state government’s ability to strip elected local body powers by executive order, without a corresponding law reform process, sets a precedent other states could follow.

    Conclusion

    The central idea is that a corruption justification is being used to recentralise powers that the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 assigned to elected local government. Whether West Bengal reverses this transfer, or other states adopt the same approach, will determine if devolution in India remains a one way commitment or a reversible administrative choice.

    Back2Basics

    Devolution of powers under the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992: Functional Devolution (The 3 Fs [Functions, Funds, and Functionaries] and Eleventh Schedule)

    1. 29 Subjects: Article 243-G empowers state legislatures to devolve responsibilities to Panchayats for economic development and social justice across 29 areas listed in the Eleventh Schedule (such as agriculture, drinking water, health and sanitation, and primary education).
    2. The “3 Fs” Challenge: Real devolution relies on transferring Functions (the tasks), Funds (the money), and Functionaries (the administrative staff).
    3. State Discretion: Because local government is a state subject, actual transfer of these powers depends entirely on individual state laws rather than automatic constitutional enforcement.

    Institutional and Financial Framework

    1. Three-Tier System: Established a uniform structure of Panchayats at the village (Gram Panchayat), intermediate (Block/Taluk Panchayat), and district (Zilla Panchayat) levels.
    2. Gram Sabha: Positioned as the foundational base comprising all registered voters in a village area to ensure direct local oversight and social audit.
    3. State Finance Commission (SFC): Mandated the creation of an SFC every five years to recommend tax assignments, tolls, fees, and grants-in-aid to improve local fiscal autonomy.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] ‘The states in India seem reluctant to empower urban local bodies both functionally as well as financially.’ Comment.”

    Linkage: The PYQ tests the extent of functional and financial devolution to local bodies. The article highlights the rollback of Panchayat powers, reflecting weak implementation of the 73rd Amendment.

  • In absence of a well-educated and organized local level government system, `Panchayats’ and ‘Samitis’ have remained mainly political institutions and not effective instruments of governance. Critically discuss.

  • “The local self-government system in India has not proved to be effective instrument of governance”. Critically examine the statement and give your views to improve the situation.

  • Assess the importance of Panchayat system in India as a part of local government. Apart from government grants, what sources the Panchayats can look out for financing developmental projects.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Importance of PRIs

    Rajni Kothari – Described local bodies as “schools of democracy” where political awareness and participation are cultivated at the grassroots level.

    Democratic Decentralization – Eg- Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign grants local bodies control over 40% of the state’s plan budget.

    Capacity Building– Training programs for PRI members. Eg- e-Panchayat initiative

    Efficient Local Service Delivery- Addresses local needs in sanitation, drinking water, roads, housing, and education. Eg- Hiware Bazar Model of watershed development.

    Transparency– Direct accountability to local constituents. Eg- Rajasthan’s Social Audit Mechanism

    Implementation of Schemes, ensuring that benefits reach the grassroots. Eg- MGNREGA.

    Financial Autonomy– PRIs have the power to levy taxes and mobilize resources, which helps them fund and manage local development projects.

    Conflict Resolution- Reports indicate a 30% reduction in petty disputes reaching district courts due to effective Panchayat mediation.

    Inclusivity– Reserving seats for women, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Dependence on higher tiers- Around 95% of Panchayat funds come from Central/State transfers, limiting fiscal autonomy.

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Barriers to Local Taxation- Freebie culture and fear of losing popularity discourage local taxation.

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Centralised Welfare via Cash Transfers – The welfare state now relies on DBT through JAM, bypassing panchayats and reducing local accountability and participatory governance

    Shortage of staff- Average 0.67 Panchayat Secretaries per Gram Panchayat, as low as 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Alternate Sources of Panchayat Financing (Beyond Government Grants)

    Own Tax Revenues- Property/House tax, Profession tax, Market fees, and Entertainment tax.

    Non-Tax Revenues- Rent from panchayat buildings, water usage fees, license fees, and user charges for services.

    Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) for solid waste management, renewable energy, or tourism projects. Eg- waste-to-energy projects.

    Community Contributions- Voluntary labor (Shramdaan), local donations, and community funds for infrastructure.

    Borrowings and Bonds- Soft loans from NABARD and Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) for rural projects.

    Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)- Eg- Tata Steel CSR projects in Jharkhand villages for drinking water and sanitation.

    Using funds from MGNREGA, 15th FC grants for rural infrastructure development.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen State Finance Commissions (SFCs) with mandatory action on their recommendations.

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations – Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    Flexible Funding Norms under CSS

    To realise the vision of “Gram Uday se Bharat Uday”, India needs second-generation Panchayati Raj reforms

  • “The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self- government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India.

    Positive Impact on Women’s Political Participation

    Increased Representation- Over 14 lakh women representatives currently serve in local bodies (MoPR, 2024).

    Leadership Development- Eg- Sulata Deo started her career as Sarpanch and became MP from Odisha

    Enhanced Service Delivery- Women-led Panchayats prioritize water, sanitation, education, and health issues. Eg- Chhavi Rajawat (Rajasthan)

    Social Change Catalysts by challenging gender stereotypes in public decision-making.

    Women leaders have strengthened Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and livelihood initiatives, promoting inclusive development. Eg- Bina Devi (“Mushroom Mahila”)

    Persistent Patriarchal Barriers in Women’s Political Participation at the Local Level

    Political Barriers

    Proxy Representation- The “Sarpanch Pati” phenomenon – husbands or male relatives exercise real power.

    Political parties rarely nominate women beyond the mandated quota, restricting vertical mobility in politics.

    Tokenism- Representation often confined to fulfilling quotas rather than genuine empowerment or participation in governance.

    Institutional Barriers

    Institutional and Bureaucratic Dominance undermine elected women’s authority, especially in resource allocation and project execution.

    Limited Decision-Making Power- exclusion from key committees or budgetary discussions.

    Economic Barriers

    Economic Dependence on male family members limits independence in political and developmental decisions.

    Social barriers

    Women representatives face verbal abuse, threats, and social ostracism, especially when asserting authority.

    Cultural and Social Norms- restrict women’s mobility and participation in public life. Eg- purdah system.

    Lack of education and political training weakens women’s administrative confidence and negotiation skills.

    Intersectional Barriers- Women from SC/ST and minority communities face additional layer of discrimination.

    Way Forward

    Mandate political parties to allot a fixed percentage of tickets to women beyond local bodies to ensure vertical mobility in politics.

    Mentorship and role model initiatives led by successful women sarpanchs to inspire grassroots participation.

    Capacity Building– Establish State Institutes of Rural Development (SIRDs) as nodal agencies for PRI training.

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations.

    Create Panchayat Ombudsman for grievance redressal.

    Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Ambedkar

    True empowerment lies in transforming participation into power, ensuring women are policy-shapers, not placeholders.

    Elections

  • The strength and sustenance of local institutions in India has shifted from their formative phase of ‘Functions, Functionaries and Funds’ to the contemporary stage of ‘Functionality’. Highlight the critical challenges faced by local institutions in terms of their functionality in recent times.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”. However, they have remained Half Baked Cake (Mani Shankar Iyer Committee).

    Issues in the Formative Phase of Local Governance (3Fs)

    Functions-

    Incomplete devolution of 11th & 12th Schedule subjects

    Limited administrative authority

    Functionaries-

    Lack of training & capacity

    Bureaucratic dominance over elected reps

    Funds-

    High fiscal dependence on states/centre

    Conditional and tied grants

    Critical Challenges to Functionality of Local Institutions

    Political Challenges

    Delayed Elections- Eg- Maharashtra’s 27 Municipal Corporations functioning under administrators since 2022.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    With rural population falling from 75% (1990) to about 60%, national development priorities have moved toward urban governance and municipal reforms.

    Functional and Planning Challenges

    District and Metropolitan Planning Committees are largely non-functional in most states.

    Poor digital capacity- Limited use of e-Gram Swaraj and GIS-based planning.

    Administrative Challenges

    Shortage of Functionaries- Severe staff vacancies-only 0.67 secretaries per Gram Panchayat (falling to 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh).

    Parastatal Dominance reduces the role of elected bodies. Eg- Delhi Jal Board

    Accountability issues- Weak social audit mechanisms and poor grievance redressal.

    Financial Challenges

    Declining Fiscal Autonomy- Local bodies generate <1% of GDP as own-source revenue (RBI, 2022).

    Post-GST Revenue Loss- Subsumption of octroi, market, and entertainment taxes.

    Irregular constitution and poor implementation of SFC recommendations.

    Social and Governance Challenges

    Elite Capture- Local elites dominate decision-making, sidelining marginalized voices.

    Despite reservation, proxy representation (Sarpanch Pati) reduces women’s leadership effectiveness.

    Way Forward

    Empower through Performance Grants linked to service outcomes (as per 15th Finance Commission).

    Regular Capacity Building via State Institutes of Rural/Urban Development.

    Digitization of Panchayats (e-GramSwaraj) for transparency and efficiency.

    Operationalize DPCs/MPCs for integrated local planning.

    Adopting Best Practices – Eg- Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign grants local bodies control over 40% of the state’s plan budget.

    Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance. Their functional capacity and autonomy are essential for the constitutional vision of decentralization.

  • To what extent, in your opinion, has the decentralisation of power in India changed the governance landscape at the grassroots ?

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Positive Transformations in Governance Landscape

    Rajni Kothari described local bodies as “schools of democracy” where political awareness and participation are cultivated at the grassroots level.

    Democratic Deepening with over 32 lakh elected representatives across 2.6 lakh Panchayats and 4,000+ urban bodies.

    Social Inclusion and Equity – Reservation for SCs, STs, and women enhanced representation of marginalised groups in decision-making. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Panchayats manage programmes like MGNREGA, PMAY-G, Jal Jeevan Mission, bringing last-mile efficiency.

    Participatory Planning – Gram Sabhas and Ward Committees have improved local accountability and need-based development. Eg- Social Audits of MGNREGA

    Strengthened Disaster Response – Eg- during COVID-19 and Kerala floods.

    Efficient Resource Management- Eg- Hiware Bazar in Maharashtra effectively managed water resources through watershed development.

    Conflict Resolution- Reports indicate a 30% reduction in petty disputes reaching district courts due to effective Panchayat mediation.

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Dependence on higher tiers- Around 95% of Panchayat funds come from Central/State transfers, limiting fiscal autonomy.

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Barriers to Local Taxation- Freebie culture and fear of losing popularity discourage local taxation.

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Centralised Welfare via Cash Transfers – The welfare state now relies on DBT through JAM, bypassing panchayats and reducing local accountability and participatory governance

    Shortage of staff- Average 0.67 Panchayat Secretaries per Gram Panchayat, as low as 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Manishankar Aiyar Committee recommendations.

    Establish National Commission for Panchayati Raj.

    Create Panchayat Ombudsman for grievance redressal.

    Set up a separate cadre of Panchayat bureaucracy with a code of conduct.

    Adopt activity mapping for clear delineation of 3Fs – Funds, Functions, Functionaries.

    To realise the vision of “Gram Uday se Bharat Uday”, India needs second-generation Panchayati Raj reforms

  • “The states in India seem reluctant to empower urban local bodies both functionally as well as financially.” Comment.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. However, they have remained Half Baked Cake (Mani Shankar Iyer Committee) due to reluctance of states.

    Reluctance to empower Urban Local Bodies

    Funding Challenges

    High fiscal dependence- ULBs’ own revenue was only 47% of their total revenue in 2022, with property tax accounting for 29%.

    Post-GST revenue loss- Subsumption of Octroi, sales tax, and entertainment tax reduced ULB income. Eg- of revenue post-GST.

    Weak property tax collection- Only 10-11% of revenue from property tax vs 20-22% in China (Peterson Institute).

    Limited taxation powers- ULBs lack fiscal autonomy unlike China (land rights), Denmark (local income tax), or USA (broad local taxes).

    Weak SFC implementation- 15% shortfall in 15th FC grants and delayed State Finance Commissions reduce fiscal predictability.

    Functional Challenges

    Parastatal dominance- Urban authorities and public corporations control key functions like water, and transport, limiting ULB autonomy. Eg- Delhi Jal Board

    Rise of Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs)- Schemes like JNNURM (2005) and Smart Cities Mission (2015) implemented via SPVs, bypassing elected bodies. SPVs, led by bureaucrats, indicate “procedural distrust” of local democracy.

    Incomplete devolution- Most States haven’t transferred all 18 functions under the 12th Schedule.

    Inactive District Planning Committees (DPCs)- Non-functional in 9 States and ineffective in 15 others, hindering integrated planning.

    Greater Bengaluru Governance Bill (2024)- Empowers Greater Bengaluru Authority (GBA) to alter ULB boundaries and override elected councils.

    Reasons for States’ Reluctance to Empower ULBs

    Political Control – Fear of losing urban dominance.

    Discretionary Devolution – 74th Amendment left powers optional.

    Low Political Incentive – No short-term electoral gain.

    Weak Administrative Capacity – Perceived inefficiency of local bodies.

    Limited Citizen Pressure – Urban voter apathy enables state control.

    Way Forward

    Empower ULBs legally through activity mapping and fiscal autonomy.

    Constitute SFCs timely, link grants to performance.

    Integrate local bodies into planning via empowered DPCs and MPCs.

    Urban Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance as 50% of India’s population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2030.

  • Analyse the role of local bodies in providing good governance at local level and bring out the pros and cons merging the rural local bodies with the urban local bodies.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”.

    Role of Local Bodies in Ensuring Good Governance

    Citizen Participation in planning and decision-making through Gram Sabhas and Ward Committees. Eg- Kerala’s people plan campaign

    Transparency- Eg- Social audits under MGNREGA enhance transparency in fund utilization.

    Accountability- Elected representatives are directly answerable to citizens.

    Effectiveness and Efficiency- Proximity to citizens allows timely service delivery in areas like sanitation, water supply, and waste management.

    Equity and Inclusion through reservation for SCs, STs, OBCs, and women. Eg- Women’s Representation at 46.44%

    Responsiveness during Disasters. Eg- COVID-19 management and disaster relief in Kerala.

    Rule of Law- Local bodies function under constitutional and legal mandates of the 73rd and 74th Amendments, ensuring lawful governance.

    Consensus-Oriented Governance- Gram Sabhas and District Planning Committees promote coordination and collective decision-making.

    Sustainability- service delivery in waste recycling and water conservation. Eg- Hiware Bazar Model of watershed development.

    Challenges

    “PRIs exist as over-structured but underpowered organisations.” (2nd ARC)

    No decentralisation of power, rather decentralisation of corruption – Mani Shankar Iyer Committee

    Limited own-source revenue- Poor tax collection efficiency (>1% own tax).

    Incomplete devolution- less than 20% of States have transferred all 29 subjects under 11th Schedule (MoPR, 2022). (​​overall Panchayat Devolution Index is only 43.89% (2021-22))

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    Gender and social barriers leading to proxy control. (Sarpanch Pati)

    Pros of Merging Rural and Urban Local Bodies

    Integrated Regional Planning – Addresses rurban challenges and ensures seamless infrastructure and service delivery.

    Uniform Standards of Governance – Streamlines policies, taxation, and land-use planning.

    Efficient Resource Utilization – Shared funding and manpower reduce duplication.

    Better Management of Peri-Urban Areas – Urban expansion can be better planned and regulated.

    Cons of Merging Rural and Urban Local Bodies

    Dilution of Constitutional Intent under 73rd and 74th Amendments.

    Political Resistance – Power redistribution may face bureaucratic and political opposition.

    Administrative Complexity due to different laws, tax systems, and governance mechanisms.

    Urban areas may dominate resource allocation and decision-making.

    Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance. A functional convergence, not structural merger, aligns better with India’s constitutional vision of decentralization.