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Subject: Science and Technology

  • India’s Dhvani Hypersonic Missile

    Why in the News?

    The DRDO is preparing for the maiden test of the “Dhvani” hypersonic missile.

    About the Dhvani Missile and Its Features

    • Overview: The Dhvani hypersonic missile is being developed by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as part of its advanced hypersonic weapons programme.
    • Type: It is designed as a Hypersonic Glide Vehicle (HGV) — a next-generation missile system capable of travelling at hypersonic speeds (beyond Mach 5 or over 7,400 km/h) while performing sharp maneuvers at high altitudes.
    • Range and Speed:
      • Expected operational range: 6,000–10,000 km, potentially doubling the reach of India’s Agni-V ICBM.
      • Speed: Exceeds Mach 5, making interception nearly impossible with current missile defence systems.
    • Flight Mechanism:
      • Launched to extreme altitudes before entering a glide phase in the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds.
      • The glide vehicle can change direction mid-course, allowing unpredictable trajectories that evade radar and anti-missile systems.
    • Design and Engineering:
      • Length: ~9 metres; Width: ~2.5 metres.
      • Blended Wing-Body Configuration: Enhances lift and stability while reducing aerodynamic drag.
      • Thermal Protection System: Uses ultra-high-temperature ceramic composites capable of withstanding 2,000–3,000°C during re-entry.
      • Stealth Features: Angled surfaces and smooth contours minimise radar cross-section, making it virtually undetectable to enemy radars.
    • Development Heritage:
      • Builds upon DRDO’s success with the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV), which validated India’s scramjet propulsion and heat-resistant materials.
      • Represents the transition from technology demonstrator to operational weapon system, signalling India’s arrival in the hypersonic era.

    Comparison with Global Hypersonic Systems:

    System Name Type Speed (Mach) Operational Status
    Russia Avangard HGV 20+ Deployed
    China DF-ZF HGV 10 Deployed
    United States Dark Eagle / HACM Hypersonic Glide / Cruise 8–10 In testing
    India Dhvani (HGV) Hypersonic Glide Vehicle 5–6+ Pre-test stage (2025)

    Strategic Significance for India:

    • Global Standing: Positions India alongside the U.S., Russia, and China in the exclusive club of hypersonic powers, showcasing its advanced defence R&D capacity.
    • Regional Deterrence: Creates a technological and strategic edge over Pakistan and provides a credible counterbalance to China’s hypersonic arsenal.
    • Survivability and Precision: The missile’s speed, stealth, and maneuverability make interception nearly impossible while enabling pinpoint strikes on both land and sea targets.
    • Indigenous Achievement: Developed entirely through Indian expertise, aligning with the Atmanirbhar Bharat vision in critical defence technologies.
    • Force Multiplier: Strengthens India’s nuclear deterrent and strategic triad, ensuring readiness for long-range precision and deterrence missions.
    [UPSC 2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.

    2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.

    3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only  (b) 2 and 3 only  (c) 1 and 3 only  (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • What are Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)?

    Why in the News?

    Major Indian private sector corporations expressed formal interest in setting up Small Modular Reactor (SMR)-based nuclear projects as part of the ‘Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMR)’ programme.

    What is the Bharat Small Modular Reactors (BSMR) Programme?

    • Overview: India’s flagship nuclear programme, led by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
    • Reactor Models:
      • BSMR-200 – 200 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor with passive safety.
      • BSR-220 – PHWR-based small reactor.
      • SMR-55 – 55 MWe PWR for captive or remote use.
    • Implementation: NPCIL retains ownership and operational control, while private companies fund and use generated power for captive needs. About 16 potential sites identified across Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
    • Policy & Financing: ₹20,000 crore allocated under the Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat (2025-26) to operationalise five SMRs by 2033.
    • Private sector interest: Includes Reliance Industries, Tata Power, Adani Power, JSW Energy, Hindalco, and Jindal Steel & Power.
    • Reforms & Impact: Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act (1962) and Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (2010) are proposed to facilitate investment and technology sharing.

    About Small Modular Reactors (SMRs):

    • Concept: SMRs are advanced nuclear reactors generating up to 300 Megawatt electric (MWe) each — about one-third the size of conventional reactors. They are “modular”, meaning major components are factory-fabricated, transported, and assembled on-site, cutting cost and construction time.
    • Working Principle: Operate on nuclear fission (splitting Uranium-235 atoms) to produce heat that converts water into steam for turbines. Most use the Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) design with passive safety systems that cool the reactor without human intervention.
    • Distinct Features:
      • Compact and Scalable – suitable for remote or repurposed sites.
      • Factory-built – ensures quality and quicker rollout.
      • Safer Design – smaller radioactive inventory, underground containment.
      • Flexible Use – can supply electricity, industrial heat, desalination, or hydrogen.
    • Global Examples:
      • Akademik Lomonosov (Russia) – world’s first floating SMR (70 MWe, 2020).
      • HTR-PM (China) – high-temperature gas-cooled SMR (2023).
      • Key developers: Rolls-Royce (UK), NuScale (US), GE-Hitachi, Westinghouse (AP-300).
    [UPSC 2012] To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this context, what advantage does thorium hold over uranium?

    1. Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. 2. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. 3. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 *

     

  • SARAL tool to simplify Scientific Research Papers

    Why in the News?

    The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), India’s newest science funding agency, has launched a digital tool called SARAL (Simplified and Automated Research Amplification and Learning) to make scientific research more accessible.

    What is Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF)?

    • Establishment: Created under the ANRF Act, 2023, replacing the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB).
    • Nature: Acts as India’s apex science funding and policy-making body.

    • Mission & Objectives: 

      • Raise India’s R&D spending from 0.7% to 2% of GDP by 2030.
      • Mobilise 70% private sector participation in research funding.
      • Promote interdisciplinary research across sciences, technology, health, agriculture, humanities, and social sciences.
      • Align research with Viksit Bharat 2047 and the National Education Policy (NEP).

    • Structure:

      • Chairperson: Prime Minister of India (ex-officio).
      • Vice Presidents: Union Ministers of Science & Technology and Education.
      • Member Secretary: Principal Scientific Advisor.
      • Guided by a Governing Council and Executive Council for policy and funding.

    About SARAL:

    • Developer: Created by IIIT Hyderabad under the guidance of the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF).
    • Purpose: Designed to make complex research papers accessible to students, professionals, and the general public.
    • AI Use: Generates summaries in multiple formats such as slides, videos, posters, and podcasts.
    • Language Support: Available in 11 Indian languages, ensuring wider inclusivity in science communication.
    • Workflow: Users upload research papers (LaTeX, arXiv links, PDFs); AI divides into sections (Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Conclusion); it produces editable slides and video summaries.
    • Significance:
      • Democratises science by converting research into layman-friendly outputs.
      • Enhances science communication and outreach.
      • Builds awareness of cutting-edge research across disciplines.
    [UPSC 2015] Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF)?

    1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government.

    2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India’s premier scientific institutions in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institutions.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

    Why in the News?

    NASA has recently launched the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Kennedy Space Centre, Florida.

    About IMAP Mission:

    • Context: Operates under NASA’s Solar Terrestrial Probes Program, following missions like STEREO and IBEX.
    • Objective: To map the heliosphere boundary, study energetic particle acceleration, and understand how the solar wind interacts with the interstellar medium.
    • Location: Positioned at Sun–Earth Lagrange Point 1 (L1), ~1.5 million km from Earth, ensuring continuous solar observation.

    NASA’s Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)

    Back2Basics: Heliosphere

    • The heliosphere is a vast bubble-like region around the Sun created by the flow of solar wind (charged particles emitted by the Sun).
    • It extends well beyond Pluto and acts as a shield, protecting the solar system from much of the harmful cosmic radiation from interstellar space.
    • Its outer boundary, called the heliopause, marks where solar wind pressure balances with interstellar medium pressure.

    Key Features:

    • Scientific Payload: 10 instruments including- Energetic Neutral Atom Detectors; Charged Particle Detectors and Magnetic & Dust Sensors.
    • Real-Time Alerts: Equipped with I-ALiRT (Active Link for Real-Time) to broadcast space weather data and provide ~30 minutes’ warning of harmful solar radiation.
    • Spacecraft Design: Spin-stabilized, in a Lissajous orbit around L1, ensuring Sun-facing stability.
    • Enhanced Sensitivity: Higher resolution compared to ACE and IBEX, enabling detection of faint cosmic signals.

    Significance:

    • Scientific: Creates the most detailed maps of the heliosphere boundary, improves understanding of solar wind, cosmic rays, and space weather.
    • Technological: Strengthens space weather forecasting, safeguarding satellites, GPS systems, and power grids.
    • Human Spaceflight: Critical for Artemis and future deep-space missions, informing radiation shielding and safe travel routes.
    • Global Collaboration: Complements missions like NASA–ESA’s Solar Orbiter and the upcoming LISA mission, boosting multi-messenger space science.
    • Habitability Research: Provides insights into how heliospheres shield planets, vital for studying Earth’s resilience and exoplanet habitability.
    [UPSC 2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

    Options: (a) Electric plane tested by NASA *

    (b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

    (c) Space observatory launched by China

    (d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

     

  • Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

    Why in the News?

    Scientists are planning the Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project on the Moon to bypass seismic noise, atmosphere, and frequency limits faced by Earth-based detectors like Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO).

    What are Gravitational Waves?

    • Overview: Gravitational waves are ripples in the spacetime continuum created when massive objects such as black holes or neutron stars collide.
    • Speed & Effect: They travel at the speed of light, subtly stretching and compressing spacetime. On small scales, effects are extremely weak (e.g., Earth–Moon distance altered by less than an atom’s diameter).
    • Prediction: Proposed by Albert Einstein (1916) in his General Theory of Relativity.
    • First Detection: In 2015, LIGO recorded the first gravitational waves from two colliding black holes 1.3 billion light-years away, confirming their existence.

    Detection on Earth and Challenges:

    • Ground Observatories: LIGO (USA), Virgo (Italy), KAGRA (Japan), GEO600 (Germany) use laser interferometers to detect minuscule delays in light caused by waves.
    • Working of LIGO: Two L-shaped detectors (Louisiana, Washington), each with 4 km arms; differences in reflections signal gravitational waves.
    • Detection Range: Sensitive to events up to 7 billion light years away; frequency range ~100–1,000 Hz.
    • Challenges: Seismic noise, atmosphere, and human activity mask weaker signals.
    • Future Space Missions:
      • LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, 2030s): Three satellites in triangular formation, sensitive to 0.1 millihertz–0.1 hertz.
      • SKA (Square Kilometre Array, Australia & South Africa): Monitors pulsars for nanohertz waves.
      • Decihertz Gap: Frequencies 0.1–10 Hz remain unexplored, which LILA aims to study.

    About Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

    • Overview: Proposed by Vanderbilt Lunar Labs, USA, to build a gravitational-wave detector on the Moon.
    • Ideal Conditions: The Moon’s polar shadow zones provide ultra-low seismic activity, natural vacuum, and no atmospheric or radio interference.
    • Focus: Sub-hertz gravitational waves, vital for studying intermediate-mass black holes and the early universe.
    • Phases:
      • LILA Pioneer: Can be deployed within this decade using American lunar landers (Blue Origin, Intuitive Machines) and possibly India’s Chandrayaan programme.
      • LILA Horizon: Advanced phase requiring astronauts for setup.
    • Cosmic Symphony Analogy:
      • SKA: Captures low-frequency “bass notes.”
      • LIGO (and future LIGO-India): Detects high-pitched bursts from stellar collisions.
      • LILA: Covers missing middle frequencies, completing the “cosmic raag.”
    • Historical Note: Since Apollo, retro-reflectors on the Moon track Earth–Moon distance. Some scientists suggest the Earth–Moon system itself acts as a natural detector.

    Significance:

    • Scientific Advancement: Opens the decihertz frontier, inaccessible so far.
    • Global Collaboration: Complements LIGO-India (IndIGO project), operational by 2030.
    • Research Potential: Helps study intermediate-mass black holes, cosmic mergers, and universe origins.
    • Lunar Astronomy: Marks the start of using the Moon as a laboratory for space science.
    • Holistic Coverage: With LISA, SKA, and Earth detectors, LILA would map the entire gravitational-wave spectrum, giving a complete picture of the universe.
    [UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.”  The experiment in question refers to

    Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*

     

  • [pib] Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have developed a siphon-based thermal desalination system that overcomes siltation issues, offering a low-cost and scalable solution.

    About Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System:

    • Overview: Developed by Indian Institute of Science (IISc) researchers to overcome the inefficiencies of conventional solar stills.
    • Purpose: Designed as a low-cost, scalable, and sustainable freshwater solution for off-grid and water-stressed regions.

    • Working: 

      • Principle: Works on siphonage, where a fabric wick draws salty water and gravity maintains continuous flow.
      • Innovation: A grooved metallic surface flushes away salt deposits before crystallization, preventing clogging.
      • Process: Salty water evaporates as a thin film on a heated surface and condenses just 2 mm away on a cooler surface, ensuring high efficiency.

    Key Features:

    • High Efficiency: Generates >6 liters of freshwater per sq. m per hour under sunlight — several times more than conventional solar stills.
    • Multistage Design: Uses stacked evaporator–condenser pairs to recycle heat and boost output.
    • Salt Resistance: Handles up to 20% salinity without clogging, making it effective even for brine treatment.
    • Affordable Materials: Built from aluminum and fabric, keeping costs low.
    • Energy Flexibility: Operates on solar power or waste heat, adaptable to different settings.
    • Scalable Applications: Useful for villages, disaster zones, and island communities.
    • Sustainability: Offers a clean, low-maintenance desalination method without reliance on complex machinery.
    [UPSC 2008] Where was the first desalination plant in India to produce one lakh liters of freshwater per day based on low-temperature thermal desalination principle commissioned?

    Options: (a) Kavaratti * (b) Port Blair (c) Mangalore (d) Valsad

     

  • [29th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: An Engel’s pause in an AI-shaped world

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

    Linkage: This question reflects the exact dilemma discussed in the Engels’ pause analogy—AI promises higher productivity (e.g., clinical diagnosis, efficiency) but without governance, the welfare gains (privacy, equitable access, trust) may lag, creating social costs.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is hailed as the new Industrial Revolution, but as Geoffrey Hinton warns, it could also deepen inequality by making a few rich while leaving the majority poorer. This paradox, reminiscent of Friedrich Engels’ 19th-century observation, raises a pressing question for policymakers: Are we entering a modern “Engels’ pause” where productivity soars but living standards stagnate? For UPSC aspirants, this debate is central to GS 1 (industrial revolution parallels), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (technology, economy), and GS 4 (ethics of equity in innovation).

    Introduction

    The concept of an Engels’ pause, coined by economist Robert Allen, describes a historical paradox in 19th-century Britain: industrial output grew rapidly, yet wages stagnated, food prices soared, and inequality widened. The benefits of industrialization reached the majority only after decades, with reforms and institutional adjustments.

    Today, AI as a general-purpose technology (GPT)—akin to steam power, electricity, or the internet—brings unprecedented productivity potential but also risks replicating this paradox. With Nobel Laureate Geoffrey Hinton warning of AI enriching a few at the expense of many, and evidence of uneven benefits emerging globally, the Engels’ pause metaphor becomes a crucial analytical lens.

    Why in the News?

    Artificial Intelligence is reshaping global economies, but early signs suggest a disconnect between productivity gains and broad-based prosperity. A recent Stanford study showed younger workers are more vulnerable to AI displacement, while an Indian IT giant laid off 12,000 employees in its AI pivot. Meanwhile, a MIT study revealed that 95% of AI pilots are failing to deliver visible gains due to weak complementary capabilities. In the Philippines, call centres recorded 30–50% productivity jumps with AI copilots, yet wages stagnated and workloads intensified. PwC forecasts AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030, but gains are concentrated in a few countries and firms. These developments highlight the possibility of an AI-induced Engels’ pause, making it a critical debate for global governance.

    Are We Facing a Modern Engels’ Pause?

    1. Historical Parallels: Like 19th-century Britain, current AI-driven growth risks benefiting capital over labour, delaying welfare gains for the majority.
    2. Vulnerable Workers: Stanford research shows younger workers are most exposed to AI disruptions.
    3. Sectoral Displacement: IT, healthcare, education, and even government (e.g., Albania’s AI Minister) are witnessing job/task reconfigurations.

    What Are the Markers of an AI Engels’ Pause?

    1. Stagnant Wages despite Productivity Gains: Philippines call centres show higher efficiency but little improvement in wages.
    2. Rising Costs of Complements: Cloud computing, retraining, coding bootcamps, and cybersecurity raise the “price of staying relevant”.
    3. Unequal Distribution of Gains: PwC’s $15.7 trillion AI GDP addition is concentrated in the U.S., China, and a few tech firms. IMF (2024) warns 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed, with advanced economies at greater risk of skilled substitution.
    4. Intensified Inequality: Research on India shows stronger IPR regimes widened wage inequality during tech races.

    How Can Governance Break the Pause?

    1. Skilling and Transition Models: Singapore’s SkillsFuture programme and MBZUAI (world’s first AI university) highlight proactive reskilling.
    2. Redistribution Tools: Robot taxes and Universal Basic Income (UBI) pilots in the UK and EU aim to channel AI rents toward social welfare.
    3. AI Infrastructure as Public Good: Compute and data should be democratized; initiatives like K2Think.ai (UAE) and Apertus (Switzerland) are steps in building open, public AI models.

    Why This Time Might Be Different

    1. Stronger Welfare Systems: Unlike 19th-century Britain, today’s democracies have safety nets and global institutions.
    2. Rapid Diffusion of Technology: Smartphones reached billions within a decade; AI could follow a similar trajectory.
    3. Potential Social Benefits: AI could lower costs in healthcare, education, and energy if deployed equitably.

    Conclusion

    The Engels’ pause analogy underscores a profound warning: productivity gains do not automatically translate into welfare improvements. AI governance, skilling programmes, redistribution mechanisms, and public-good infrastructure will determine whether AI becomes a human welfare revolution rather than just a productivity revolution. Political will, not just technological breakthroughs, will decide if this pause is short-lived or prolonged.

    Value Addition

    Scholarly References and Thinkers

    1. Robert C. Allen (2009): Coined Engels’ Pause in economic history; wages stagnated despite industrial productivity growth in 19th-century Britain.
    2. Nicholas Crafts (2021): Noted that GPTs like AI need institutional reforms and complementary innovations before welfare spreads.
    3. Bojan Jovanovic & Rousseau (2005): Documented “technology shocks” in U.S. economy → initial dislocation before long-term growth.
    4. Geoffrey Hinton (2024, FT Interview): Warned AI may “make a few rich and the rest poorer.”
    5. Agrawal, Gans & Goldfarb (2018): Defined AI as lowering the cost of prediction.

    Key Reports and Data Points

    1. PwC Report (2018): AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030; 70% of gains concentrated in U.S. and China.
    2. IMF Report (2024): 40% of global jobs are AI-exposed; higher risk of high-skilled substitution in advanced economies.
    3. MIT Study (2023): Found that 95% of AI pilot projects failed to show visible gains due to lack of complementary capabilities.
    4. Stanford Study (2023): “Canaries in the Coal Mine” → younger workers are most vulnerable to AI disruption.
    5. OECD AI Principles (2019): Global governance framework emphasising fairness, transparency, accountability.

    International Best Practices / Programs

    1. Singapore – SkillsFuture (2015): Provides continuous education credits for workers to reskill; considered a global model.
    2. UAE – Mohamed bin Zayed University of AI (MBZUAI, 2019): World’s first dedicated AI university.
    3. European Union – AI Act (2021 Draft): Risk-based framework regulating AI applications.
    4. United Kingdom – UBI Experiments: Pilots to test redistribution of tech-driven wealth.
    5. Albania – First AI Minister (2024): Institutional adoption of AI governance in public administration.

    Indian Context and Initiatives

    1. NITI Aayog’s National Strategy on AI (2018): “AI for All” approach—priority areas: healthcare, education, agriculture, mobility.
    2. Digital India Programme: Expanding digital infrastructure to enable AI adoption.
    3. National Programme on AI (2019): Envisioned as a Center of Excellence ecosystem for skilling, research, and governance.
    4. NASSCOM FutureSkills Prime: Public–private initiative to reskill 2 million professionals in emerging tech, including AI.
    5. IndiaAI Portal (2023): Central knowledge hub for AI use cases and policy discussions.

    Key Concepts for Thematic Depth

    1. General-Purpose Technology (GPT): Technologies with cross-sectoral transformative impact (steam, electricity, internet, AI).
    2. Complementary Innovations: Need for institutional reforms, new tasks, and human capital for GPT diffusion.
    3. Job Polarisation: Middle-skill jobs displaced → low-skill and high-skill jobs expand; seen in OECD labour markets.
    4. Robot Tax (Bill Gates’ Proposal): Idea of taxing automation to fund welfare.
    5. Universal Basic Income (UBI): Redistribution mechanism to tackle inequality in tech-driven economies.

    Comparative Historical Perspective

    1. Industrial Revolution (19th c. Britain): Productivity rose but welfare stagnated → Engels’ Pause.
    2. Gilded Age (U.S.): Huge inequality, labour unrest; later corrected via welfare state reforms.
    3. Digital Revolution (1990s): Internet adoption uneven; productivity surge lagged behind wages initially.

    Ethical and Governance Dimensions

    1. Equity and Justice (GS4): AI could worsen inequality unless governed inclusively.
    2. Privacy: Particularly sensitive in healthcare (HIPAA in U.S.; India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023).
    3. Transparency: AI “black box” models challenge accountability.
    4. Democratic Deficit: AI development is corporate-heavy; needs citizen-centric governance.

  • India’s first space observatory AstroSat completes 10 years

    Why in the News?

    AstroSat, India’s first multi-wavelength space observatory has completed 10 years on September 28, 2025, boosting India’s role in multi-messenger astronomy.

    What is Multi-Messenger Astronomy?

    • Overview:  A modern approach that uses different cosmic messengers to study the universe, not just light.
    • Messengers:
      • Light (photons): Radio, visible, UV, X-ray, gamma rays.
      • Gravitational waves: From black hole/neutron star mergers.
      • Neutrinos: From nuclear reactions in stars.
      • Cosmic rays: Charged particles from space.
    • Insights: Light shows stellar surfaces; Gravitational waves show collisions; Neutrinos probe stellar interiors.
    • Example: 2017 neutron star collision observed with both light and gravitational waves, proving origin of heavy elements like gold.
    • AstroSat’s Role: Enabled simultaneous UV, optical, and X-ray observations, tracking flares, black holes, and neutron stars.

    What is AstroSat?

    • Overview: India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched on September 28, 2015 by PSLV-C30 from Sriharikota.
    • Objective: To study celestial sources simultaneously in X-ray, ultraviolet (UV), and optical bands, unlike most single-band missions.
    • Management: Controlled by the Mission Operations Complex (MOX), ISTRAC, Bengaluru.
    • Mission Life: Designed for 5 years but operational even after 10 years.
    • Payloads:
      • UVIT (Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope).
      • LAXPC (Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter).
      • CZTI (Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Imager).
      • SXT (Soft X-ray Telescope).
      • SSM (Scanning Sky Monitor).

    Its Accomplishments:

    • Extended Life: Surpassed design life; still generating data.
    • Black Hole Studies: Captured 500+ black hole births, advancing high-energy astrophysics.
    • Galaxy Detection: Tracked extreme UV light from a galaxy 9.3 billion light-years away, aiding early universe studies.
    • Gamma-Ray Bursts: 500+ bursts studied by CZTI.
    • Discoveries: Identified rare UV-bright Milky Way stars, thousands of times brighter than the Sun.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.

    2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

  • Desert Soilification Technology

    Why in the News?

    For the first time, researchers at the Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) have successfully grown wheat in arid land of western Rajasthan using desert soilification technology.

    What is Desert Soilification Technology?

    • Overview: It is an innovative biotechnological method that transforms barren desert sand into soil-like material capable of supporting agriculture.
    • Technology: It uses bioformulations and polymers to bind loose sand particles, improve soil texture, and enable water retention.
    • Utility: It is designed to combat desertification, enhance agricultural productivity in arid zones, and ensure sustainable land use.
    • How does it work?
      • Polymer-based Bioformulation: Natural polymers and microbial formulations are applied to desert sand.
      • Cross-Linking of Sand Particles: Bio-polymers create a structural network, binding sand grains together into a soil-like matrix.
      • Water Retention: The cross-linked structure traps water, drastically reducing irrigation needs and preventing rapid percolation of water through sandy soil.
      • Microbial Boost: Introduced beneficial microbes stimulate plant growth, improve soil fertility, and enhance stress resistance of crops.
      • Soil-like Properties: The modified sand mimics fertile soil — enabling nutrient retention, microbial colonization, and sustainable cropping.

    Key Features:

    • Sand-to-Soil Conversion: Cross-links sand particles into a soil-like structure, creating porosity and root-holding capacity.
    • Water Retention Efficiency: Increases moisture-holding ability of sand, thereby reducing irrigation requirements by 30–40%.
    • Microbial Boost: Bioformulation stimulates beneficial soil microbes, enhancing nutrient cycling and crop stress resistance.
    • Crop Versatility: Tested successfully with wheat, bajra, guar gum, chickpea, and is now being expanded to millets and green gram.
    • Low Input Agriculture: Reduces number of irrigation cycles (3–4 vs 5–6 in normal wheat farming).
    • Climate Resilience: Provides a sustainable model for food production in water-stressed and desertified regions.
    • Scalability: Can be replicated in other arid ecosystems beyond Rajasthan (potential use in Middle East, Africa).
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following best describes the concept of ‘Small Farmer Large Field’?

    (a) Resettling war-displaced people on shared cultivable land

    (b) Marginal farmers group to coordinate farm operations *

    (c) Marginal farmers lease land collectively to a corporate

    (d) A company funds and guides farmers to grow required crops

     

  • Intermediate Range Agni-Prime Missile

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) successfully test-fired the Agni-Prime missile from a rail-based mobile launcher, marking India’s first such operational test.

    About Agni-Prime Missile:

    • About: 6th missile in the Agni family, developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
    • Design: Two-stage, solid-propellant, canisterised surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
    • Range and Payload: 1,000–2,000 km; covering both China and Pakistan; Payload: Up to 1.5 tonnes (1,500–3,000 kg).
    • Navigation: Dual redundant guidance system; Maneuverable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV) with delta fins to evade missile defence systems.
    • Deployment: Already inducted in road-mobile canisterised version; now tested with rail-based mobile launcher.

    Global Context: Rail-Based Missile Technology:

    With Agni-P rail launch, joins this select strategic group.

    • Soviet Union: Operated RT-23 Molodets Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) on rail; dismantled after START Treaty.
    • Russia: Planned Barguzin rail-mobile ICBM system, shelved to focus on hypersonics.
    • United States: Explored rail-mobile Minuteman and Peacekeeper ICBMs, cancelled post-Cold War.
    • China: Tested rail-mobile DF-41 ICBM in 2016.
    • North Korea: Tested rail-based Short-Range Ballistic Missile system in 2021.

    Significance of Rail-Based Launch:

    • Mobility & Concealment: Railcars move across the network, hide in tunnels, evade satellite detection.
    • Survivability: Unlike silos, less vulnerable to pre-emptive strikes.
    • Rapid Response: Enables quick deployment and shorter reaction time.
    • Strategic Deterrence: Boosts credible second-strike nuclear capability.
    • Technological Showcase: Demonstrates India’s maturity in missile systems.

    Back2Basics: Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)

    • Launch: Conceived in 1983 by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam to achieve self-reliance in missile technology.
    • Completion: 2012.
    • Missile Family (P-A-T-N-A):
      • Prithvi – Short-range ballistic missile.
      • Agni – Ballistic missiles of multiple ranges (Agni I–V, Agni-P).
      • Trishul – Short-range surface-to-air missile.
      • Nag – 3rd generation anti-tank guided missile.
      • Akash – Medium-range surface-to-air missile.

    Agni Series and its Development:

    • Origins: Began in 1983 under the IGMDP led by Dr. Kalam.
    • Evolution: Started as technology demonstrators for re-entry vehicles; later developed into full-fledged strategic missiles.
    • Variants:
      • Agni-I: 700–1,200 km range, inducted 2007.
      • Agni-II: 2,000–3,000 km range, inducted 2010.
      • Agni-III: 3,500 km range, highly accurate, tested 2007.
      • Agni-IV: 4,000 km range, advanced avionics, tested 2011.
      • Agni-V: 5,000+ km range, ICBM, MIRV capable.
      • Agni Prime (Agni-P): 1,000–2,000 km, lighter, tested 2021.
      • Agni-VI: Under development, 6,000–10,000 km, MIRV + submarine launch capable.
    • Significance: Backbone of India’s nuclear triad, enhancing deterrence against regional and global adversaries.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*