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Subject: Science and Technology

  • COCO 4.9 Ocean Circulation Model

    Why in the News?

    Researchers used the COCO (Center for Climate System Research Ocean Component) 4.9 ocean model to predict how tritium from Fukushima’s 30-year wastewater release will spread across the Pacific under current and future climates.

    Tap to read more about the Fukushima Disaster.

    About COCO 4.9 Ocean Circulation Model:

    • Purpose: Computer-based ocean simulator to study how seawater moves, mixes, and changes over time.
    • Method: Divides oceans into layers and grids; calculates current flows and mixing patterns.
    • Resolution: Can run in low detail (large grid blocks) or high detail (small swirling eddies).
    • Climate Link: Can model impacts of warming oceans, altered currents, and changing circulation.
    • Fukushima Application: Created a “virtual Pacific Ocean” to track tritium spread over decades.

    Utility in Nuclear Waste Disposal:

    • Predicts where, how fast, and how much nuclear contaminants will disperse.
    • Maps dispersion pathways for radioactive materials like tritium.
    • Estimates arrival times to different ocean regions.
    • Models long-term concentrations under various climate scenarios.

    Key Findings – Fukushima Study

    • Tritium levels projected well below natural background radiation across the Pacific.
    • Global warming may speed up some currents, but levels remain undetectable.
    • Tritium’s natural 12-year half-life ensures minimal long-term impact.

     

    [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:

    1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Kauzmann’s Hypothesis on Protein Core Structure

    Why in the News?

    Walter Kauzmann’s 1959 idea that protein folding relies on water-loving and water-avoiding parts has now been challenged by new research showing protein cores are more flexible than once believed.

    Protein and Protein Folding – Overview

    • Proteins: Biological macromolecules made of 20 amino acids in specific sequences.
    • Folding: Sequence dictates 3D shape, essential for function.
    • Water Interaction:
      • Hydrophilic (e.g., lysine) → outer surface.
      • Hydrophobic (e.g., tryptophan) → buried in core.
    • Kauzmann Hypothesis (1959): Proteins have a hydrophobic core and hydrophilic surface, guiding folding.
    • 1960s X-ray Evidence: Confirmed hydrophobic residues inside, hydrophilic outside.
    • Earlier Belief: Core was highly sensitive—small changes could destabilize protein.

    Recent Research:

    • Study Design: Tested 78,125 amino acid combos at 7 sites in cores of 3 proteins:
      • Human SH3 domain (FYN tyrosine kinase)
      • Barley CI-2A protein
      • E. coli CspA protein
    • Findings:
      • Many changes harmful, but thousands stable (e.g., SH3-FYN had 12,000+ stable conformations).
      • Machine learning accurately predicted stability even with <25% sequence similarity.

    Implications:

    • Protein Engineering: Core modifications may be possible without losing stability—beneficial for therapeutics.
    • Evolutionary Insight: Protein cores may have been more adaptable during evolution than once thought.
    [UPSC 2010] Which one of the following processes in the bodies of living organisms is a digestive process?

    (a) Breakdown of proteins into amino acids * (b) Breakdown of glucose into CO2 and H2O (c) Conversion of glucose into glycogen (d) Conversion of amino acids into proteins.

     

  • WHO classifies Hepatitis D as Carcinogenic

    Why in the News?

    The World Health Organization (WHO) has reclassified hepatitis D virus (HDV) as carcinogenic, following the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) assessment based on data from The Lancet Oncology.

    About Hepatitis D:

    • What is it: Hepatitis D is a serious liver infection caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV).
    • Cause: Hepatitis D virus (HDV), an incomplete virus needing hepatitis B virus (HBV) for replication.
    • Infection Types:
      • Co-infection – HDV + HBV at the same time.
      • Superinfection – HDV infects someone already with HBV.
    • Transmission: Parenteral exposure (injections, transfusions), mother-to-child, sexual contact.
    • Diagnosis: Blood tests for HDV antibodies and HDV-RNA.
    • Prevention: HBV vaccination, safe blood practices, safe sex, screening, avoid needle sharing.

    Why Hepatitis D is Carcinogenic?

    • Causes more severe liver damage than HBV alone.
    • HBV–HDV co-infection raises liver cancer risk 2–6 times compared to HBV-only cases.
    • Up to 75% develop cirrhosis within 15 years.
    • Can cause cancer even without cirrhosis due to HBV DNA integration + HDV-induced damage.

    Back2Basics: Hepatitis

    • Definition: Liver inflammation from viruses, alcohol, toxins, drugs, autoimmune disorders, or metabolic issues.
    • Viral Types:
      • A – Fecal-oral; acute; vaccine available.
      • B – Blood/body fluids; chronic risk; vaccine available.
      • C – Blood-to-blood; often chronic; no vaccine; treatable with antivirals.
      • D – Discussed above.
      • E – Fecal-oral; usually acute.
    • Chronic B, C, D: Major drivers of cirrhosis and liver cancer.
    • Prevention: Vaccination (A, B), safe injections, screened blood, safe sex, good hygiene.

     

    [UPSC 2019] Which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV. (b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine. * (c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more than those infected with HIV. (d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

     

  • Prophylaxis Therapy for Haemophilia

    Why in the News?

    With haemophilia care evolving globally, the shift from reactive to preventive treatment has brought Prophylaxis Therapy to the forefront of modern clinical practice.

    About Haemophilia:

    • What is it: Rare genetic bleeding disorder due to deficiency of clotting factors, mainly Factor VIII (Haemophilia A).
    • Effect: Causes prolonged bleeding, even from minor injuries; can lead to internal bleeds in joints, muscles, or brain.
    • Key Symptoms: Excessive bleeding, painful joint swelling, risk of disability or brain hemorrhage.
    • Prevalence: Estimated 1–1.5 lakh cases in India; only ~29,000 diagnosed (~20%).
    • Underdiagnosis Causes: Low awareness, poor access to diagnostics, and socio-economic challenges.
    • Impact if Untreated: Each untreated bleed may reduce lifespan by ~16 days; leads to pain, disability, missed school/work, and job loss.

    Prophylaxis (Regular Replacement Therapy) and its Benefits:

    • What It Is: Regular infusion of clotting factors or non-factor therapies to prevent bleeds.
    • Global Standard: Replaces on-demand therapy; adopted as best practice in developed countries.
    • Joint Protection: Prevents recurrent bleeds, avoids deformities and long-term disability.
    • Quality of Life: Reduces pain and fear, enables normal schooling, work, and social life.
    • Healthcare Savings: Cuts emergency visits, hospital stays, and long-term costs.
    • Global Status: ~90% of haemophilia patients in developed countries are on prophylaxis.
    • India’s Progress: On-demand remains common; some states offer prophylaxis for children under 10.
    [UPSC 2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:

    1.Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.

    2.A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from the mother and not from the father.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Yashoda AI Literacy Program

    Why in the News?

    The National Commission for Women (NCW) has launched “Yashoda AI”, an AI literacy program to empower women with skills in cybersecurity, digital privacy, and safe online practices, promoting digital inclusion across India.

    About Yashoda AI:

    • Launch: Introduced in May 2025 as an Artificial Intelligence Literacy Program for women.
    • Organisers: Joint initiative by the NCW and Future Shift Labs.
    • Objective: To train women in cybersecurity, digital privacy, and safe online practices.
    • Focus Areas: Covers AI-driven crimes, digital safety, and practical risk mitigation strategies.
    • Reach: Over 2,500 women trained to date.
    • Beneficiaries: Includes Self-Help Group members, local representatives (Sarpanchs, Pradhans, Mayors, Members of Legislative Assemblies), and frontline workers like Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA workers).

    Back2Basics: National Commission for Women

    • Status: Statutory body established in 1992 under the NCW Act, 1990.
    • Composition: Consists of a Chairperson, 5 Members, and a Member-Secretary—appointed by the Central Government.
    • Term: All members serve for a term of 3 years.
    • Powers: Holds civil court powers during inquiries:
      • Can summon individuals and enforce attendance
      • Examine witnesses under oath
      • Demand records and receive affidavits
      • Issue commissions for examination of witnesses or documents

     

    [UPSC 2017] What is the purpose of Vidyanjali Yojana’?

    1. To enable the famous foreign campuses in India.

    2. To increase the quality of education provided in government schools by taking help from the private sector and the community.

    3. To encourage voluntary monetary contributions from private individuals and organizations so as to improve the infrastructure facilities for primary and secondary schools.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 2 only * (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 only (d) 2 and 3 only

     

  • Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize

    Why in the News?

    Indian mathematician Dr. Rajula Srivastava has received the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize for her groundbreaking work in harmonic analysis and number theory.

    About the Indian Laureate: Dr. Rajula Srivastava

    • Affiliation: Hausdorff Center for Mathematics, University of Bonn and Max Planck Institute of Mathematics, Germany.
    • Field of Work:
      • Dr. Srivastava studied how to break down complex mathematical functions into simpler parts using advanced math tools.
      • She worked on finding how close certain numbers can get to specific points on curved shapes in higher dimensions.

    About the Maryam Mirzakhani New Frontiers Prize:

    • Purpose: Recognises early-career women mathematicians (within two years of PhD completion) for outstanding research contributions.
    • Named After: Maryam Mirzakhani — first woman and first Iranian to win the Fields Medal; known for her work on geometry and Riemann surfaces.
    • Objective: To honour Mirzakhani’s legacy, encourage more women in mathematics, and elevate early-career contributions.
    • Established: November 2019 by the Breakthrough Prize Foundation.
    • Prize Amount: $50,000, may be shared by multiple recipients in a year.
    • Eligibility: Women mathematicians who have:
      • Recently completed their PhD (within 2 years)
      • Shown exceptional promise and innovation in mathematical research.

    Other Important Prizes in Mathematics:

    • Fields Medal: Awarded every four years to mathematicians under 40, the Fields Medal is the most prestigious global mathematics award, established in 1936, and presented by the International Mathematical Union to recognize outstanding contributions to the field.
    • Abel Prize: Instituted by the King of Norway in 2001, the Abel Prize is an annual international award recognizing lifetime achievement in mathematics, often considered the closest equivalent to the Nobel Prize in the discipline.
    • Wolf Prize in Mathematics: Awarded annually since 1978 by the Wolf Foundation in Israel, the Wolf Prize honours exceptional achievements across all branches of mathematics and is ranked just below the Fields and Abel Prizes in prestige.
    [UPSC 2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of

    Options: (a) S. Ramanujan* (b) S. Chandhrashekhar (c) S. N. Bose (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • Bacterial cause behind Mass Starfish Deaths

    Why in the News?

    Since 2013, over 5 billion starfish have died along North America’s Pacific coast due to a wasting disease now linked to Vibrio pectenicida, a cholera-related bacterium.

    Bacterial cause behind Mass Starfish Deaths

    About Starfish (Sea Stars):

    • Taxonomy: Belong to phylum Echinodermata; exclusively marine organisms.
    • Species: Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Velatida, Valvatida, Spinuloside
    • Body Structure:
      • Radial symmetry (adults), bilateral symmetry (larvae)
      • Calcareous exoskeleton for protection
      • Water vascular system for respiration and circulation
    • Unique Features:
      • Regeneration: Can regrow lost limbs
      • No blood or brain: Seawater circulates nutrients
      • Eyespots: At arm tips, help sense light
      • Tough skin: Made of calcium carbonate
    • Feeding: Carnivorous, detritivorous, and scavengers

    Reasons for Mass Deaths (2013–2025):

    • Causal Agent: Identified in 2025 as Vibrio pectenicida, a bacterium related to cholera-causing strains.
    • Symptoms: Limb detachment; Tissue disintegration; Melting into a pile of gunk.
    • Most Affected Species: Sunflower sea stars, which saw a 90% population decline.
    • Geographical Spread: Along the Pacific coast from Alaska to Mexico.
    • Ecological Consequences:
      • Starfish are keystone predators, especially of sea urchins.
      • Their decline led to urchin population explosions, which overgrazed kelp forests.
      • Resulted in biodiversity loss and reduced carbon sequestration.
    [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

    (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal (c) scarcity of food available to them (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them

     

  • Rhisotope Project

    Why in the News?

    In a move to combat rhino poaching, the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa, supported by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has launched the Rhisotope Project.

    What is Rhisotope Project? 

    • Launched By: University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, with support from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
    • Initiation: Concept began in 2021; formally launched in July 2024.
    • Objective: Prevent rhino poaching by making horns traceable and unsuitable for illegal trade.
    • Pilot Site: Waterberg Biosphere Reserve, South Africa.
    • Pilot Implementation: 20 rhinos injected with radioisotopes (exact isotope remains undisclosed) for testing.

    How the Isotope Tagging Works?

    • Isotope Basics: Uses radioactive isotopes that emit detectable radiation as they decay.
    • Injection Method: A small hole is drilled into the horn; a low dose of isotope is inserted safely.
    • Detection Mechanism: Radiation Portal Monitors at ports can detect tagged horns—even inside 40-foot containers, as proven using 3D-printed horn simulations.

     

    Significance:

    • Safety Assurance: No damage to rhinos observed; cytological tests showed no cellular or physiological harm.
    • Impact on Illegal Trade: Horn becomes detectable, unusable, and toxic for illegal human consumption.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.     2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.     3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

    Which of the statements given above is / are correct?”

    Options:   (a) 1 only *  (b) 2 only   (c) 1 and 3 only    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Blockchain-verified Quantum Randomness for Secure Communication

    Why in the News?

    A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.

    About the Technology:

    • Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
    • Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
    • Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.

    About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:

    • Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
    • Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
    • Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
    • Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.

    Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:

    • Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
    • How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
    • Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
    • Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
    • Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
    • Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
    • Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

  • AI-designed Proteins to generate Immune Cells

    Why in the News?

    Harvard Scientists have recently used AI to design synthetic proteins that activate T Cells, offering a new path for cancer treatment and vaccine development.

    What are T Cells?

    • They are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune system.
    • Types of T Cells:
      • Helper T cells (CD4+): Activate and direct other immune cells.
      • Killer T cells (CD8+): Destroy infected or cancerous cells.
      • Memory T cells: “Remember” past invaders for faster response in the future.

    About the Study:

    • Used artificial intelligence (AI) to design soluble proteins that activate ‘Notch Signalling’, a key immune pathway.
      • These are synthetic molecular activators designed using advanced AI-driven protein design technologies.
    • Unlike older lab-only methods, these proteins work inside the body (in vivo) and in lab settings.
    • Result: Significant boost in T cell production from human progenitor cells.

    What is Notch Signalling?

    • A cell-to-cell signalling system that guides cell development.
    • Crucial for forming T cells, which fight infections and cancers.
    • No reliable therapeutic activator existed earlier.

    Key Benefits Offered:

    • Mass T Cell Generation: Meets clinical needs for CAR T Cell Therapy.
    • Vaccine Support: Boosted Memory T cells in mice, improving long-term immunity.
    • Cancer Therapy: Helps fight immune-suppressive tumour environments.
    • Scalable & Soluble: Works in humans, not just in lab dishes.
    • AI in Medicine: Shows AI’s growing role in designing immune therapies.
    [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human body?

    Options: (a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.

    (b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.

    (c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.

    (d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens