The instability following the 2021 Myanmar military coup has transformed 1,643 km India-Myanmar border into a ‘high-risk zone’

Security Challenges Emanating Across the India-Myanmar Border

Parallel government by insurgent groups. Eg- charging 1% to 2% “revolutionary tax” on legal infrastructure projects and “safe passage fees” from drug mafias

Refugee Crisis & Demographic Shifts- Since the 2021 coup, over 95,000 refugees (primarily Chin and Sagaing residents) have entered Mizoram and Manipur.

“The Golden Triangle” Spillover- Myanmar’s civil war has led to a surge in poppy cultivation. Profits are used to fund ethnic militias, creating a “narcotics-insurgency nexus.”

Arms Smuggling- The border town of Moreh (Manipur) has become a primary transit hub for weaponry smuggled from China.

With the Myanmar military (Tatmadaw) losing control of nearly 86% of its territory, rebel groups like the Chin National Army (CNA) and PDFs operate freely in “ungoverned spaces”

China’s deep investments in Myanmar (CMEC) creates threat to India’s “Chicken’s Neck” corridor

Misuse of FMR- Although the government scraped it in 2024, enforcing the new “Regulated Border Pass System” remains a challenge due to local opposition.

Overburdened security forces – The Assam Rifles is dual-tasked with border guarding and counter-insurgency.

Steps Taken to Counter the Challenges

Shift to “Security-First” border management strategy

Abolition of FMR (visa-free travel up to 16 km) in 2024

Push for the completion of the Kaladan Multi-Modal Project and the Trilateral Highway by 2027

Operation Sunrise – Joint operation by Indian and Myanmar Army against insurgent groups

Biometric Documentation of all refugees and border-crossers

15 BSF battalions deployed to aid Assam Rifles.

Steps Required to Counter the Challenges

Strict Implementation of the New Pass System

Federal coordination through North-East zonal council

Accelerate the Smart Fencing System (SFS) using laser walls and sensors.

Creation of strictly monitored 10 km “Buffer Zone” to curb spontaneous illegal crossings.

Intelligence Fusion- Set up real-time data-sharing hubs to track the movement of “Golden Triangle” narcotics and arms shipments.

Humanitarian Infrastructure- Build refugee camps near the border to prevent undocumented migrants from blending into local populations.

Engage with local Ethnic Armed Organizations (EAOs) in Myanmar that control the border to secure Indian infrastructure projects.

Extend Vibrant Villages Programme to the eastern border for better infrastructure

Upgrade Outposts (BOPs) with drones and satellite imagery for 24/7 surveillance of forested infiltration routes.

“3C Strategy”of Containment, Cooperation and Connectivity is need to transform the region from a “conflict zone” to an “economic corridor.”

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Cyber Security

Internal Security › Cyber Security

2019

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Land ReformXAct Based

Internal Security › Land ReformXAct Based

2019

In response to the evolving internal security threat posed by terrorism, GoI amended the UAPA, 1967 and NIA Act in 2019 to strengthen ‘zero tolerance for terrorism’ strategy.

Amendment to UAPA,1967

The central government can designate an individual as a terrorist (under Schedule IV of the Act)

Empowers the NIA officers of the rank of Inspector or above to investigate cases of terrorism

Adds the International Convention for Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005) to the schedule

Empowers the Director-General, NIA to grant approval of seizure of property when the case is being investigated by the agency.

Amendment to NIA Act

Widen the authority of the NIA – Includes human trafficking, counterfeit currency, manufacture or sale of prohibited arms, cyber-terrorism, and offences under the Explosive Substances Act.

Extends the NIA’s jurisdiction outside India

Constitution of special courts by the Centre in order to conduct trials

Significance of the changes in the context of the prevailing security environment

Shifts counter-terror strategy from reactive to preventive – Enables early disruption of terror ecosystems.

Allows designation of individuals like Masood Azhar as terrorist

Brings Clarity and uniformity by removing inter-state jurisdictional constraints

Addresses evolving terror threat landscape – Responds to decentralised, module-based and lone-wolf terrorism.

Targets terror support networks – Focuses on financiers, facilitators, propagandists and over-ground workers. Eg- NIA Raids on separatist leaders in J&K

Improves investigation of transnational terror networks. Eg- Khalistan movement in Canada

Extend powers of NIA to investigate terrorist-organised crime linkage

Alignment with Global Counter-Terror Norms. Eg- Action against terror financing and international networks.

Ensures timely and speedy prosecution of terrorists through special courts

Criticism and Opposition by Human Rights Organisations

Violation of Personal Liberty – Stringent bail provisions and prolonged detention (180 days) affect Article 21.

Risk of Misuse – Broad definitions allow targeting of activists, journalists and dissenters.

Absence of Prior Judicial Oversight – Individual can be designated as terrorist without conviction or trial.

Departure from criminal jurisprudence norm of innocent until proven guilty – Burden of proof shifts to accused.

Low conviction rate for UAPA cases between 2019 and 2023 (only 3.1%)

Vague Definitions – Terms like “unlawful activity” and “terrorist act” are broadly defined

Lack of procedural safeguards – The government is not required to provide grounds for arrest or detention.

Against the federal structure – amendment has made the NIA “a parallel police structure”

Way Forward

Strengthen Procedural Safeguards

Clear Legal Definitions

Periodic review

Time-Bound Investigations and Trials

A law and institution as powerful as UAPA and NIA respectively, must be wielded with precision, accountability, and a deep commitment to constitutional values.

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Organized Crime and Terrorism

Internal Security › Organized Crime and Terrorism

2019

Recently, MHA has declared ‘Jamaat-e-Islami Jammu Kashmir (JeI)’ as an ‘Unlawful Association’ under Section 3 of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.

Role played by OGWs

Intelligence Gathering – provide real-time information on troop movement, patrol timings and security vulnerabilities.

Logistical Support – arrange shelter, vehicles, food, medical aid and safe houses for militants to evade detection.

Radicalisation and Recruitment through religious networks, student groups and social media.

Terror Financing – raise funds locally, manage extortion, run front organisations and facilitate hawala transfers.

Facilitating Arms Movement – OGWs act as couriers, store arms, and help smuggle weapons across borders or LoC. Eg- collecting drone-dropped arms.

Information Warfare – They generate pro-terror content, circulate videos and organise protests to delegitimise the state.

Maintaining Militant-Local Community Linkages- create public sympathy for militants, and organise funerals or protests to build support. Eg- funeral of Burhan Wani

Measures to Neutralise the Influence of OGWs

Intelligence and Policing Measures

Integrated Intelligence Grid (IIG) – Real-time coordination between police, IB, NIA and security forces to identify OGW networks.

Use of Technology for Profiling – AI-based monitoring of suspicious financial transactions, travel patterns and digital communication.

Strengthening Local Police and Community Intelligence – Eg- Village Defence Groups in Rajouri-Poonch.

Tightening Border Surveillance – Use of drones, sensors, and night-vision to check infiltration and OGW courier routes.

Legal and Institutional Measures

Action through UAPA & NIA Act – Freezing bank accounts and shutting down front organisations.

Regulating NGOs, Religious Networks – Eg- FCRA audits of charity organisations

Community and Preventive Measures

De-radicalisation and Counselling of youth

Heart and mind strategy – Eg- Operation Sadbhavana (Goodwill) of Indian Army

Employment and Skill Development to mainstream youth. Eg- Udaan Scheme

OGWs are the backbone of insurgency. A multi-layered approach is needed to break the support ecosystem of terrorism.

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Internal Security

Border Area Management

Security Challenges Emanating Across the India-Myanmar Border

Steps Taken to Counter the Challenges

Steps Required to Counter the Challenges

Answer

Cyber Security

Answer

Land ReformXAct Based

Criticism and Opposition by Human Rights Organisations

Way Forward

Answer

Organized Crime and Terrorism

Measures to Neutralise the Influence of OGWs

Intelligence and Policing Measures

Legal and Institutional Measures

Community and Preventive Measures

Answer