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Type: Prelims Only

  • Interstate River Water Dispute

    In new: Mekedatu Project

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Mekedatu Project

    Why in the News?

    Karnataka CM has offered to discuss with Tamil Nadu, the implementation of Mekedatu Project across River Cauvery.

    About Mekedatu Project

    • Mekedatu is a location along Kaveri in the border of Chamarajanagar and Ramanagara Districts in Karnataka.
    • Karnataka intends to build a reservoir across River Cauvery near Mekedatu.
    • The dam is proposed to have a capacity of 48 TMC feet (thousand million cubic) and is estimated to cost Rs 6,000 crore.
    • It was first proposed in 2003 with an intention:
      • To use the water for a hydro power station (400 MW) and
      • Supply drinking water to Bengaluru city.
    • At Mekedatu, the Kaveri runs through a deep, narrow ravine of hard granite rock.

    Tamil Nadu’s concerns over the Project

    • Tamil Nadu has all along strongly opposed the project and approached the Supreme Court as well.
    • Its argument is that any dam proposal by upper riparian states in the Cauvery basin would deprive the state’s delta farmers of their rightful share of water as per the top court verdict.
    • Tamil Nadu contends that the proposed dam violates the final award of the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal, which determined the water-sharing arrangements between the two states.

    About Cauvery River

    • The Cauvery River, also spelled as ‘Kaveri’ and known as ‘Ponni’ in Tamil, originates from Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range located in Karnataka’s Kodagu district.
    • It spans approximately 800 km, traversing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, until it eventually discharges in the Bay of Bengal.
    • The river’s catchment area covers regions in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
    • Key tributaries that join the Cauvery include Harangi, Hemavati, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, and Bhavani.
    • Cauvery remains perennial due to its dual reliance on both advancing and retreating monsoons for rainfall.

    Justifications and proposals by Karnataka

    • Ensuring adequate flow to TN: Karnataka argues that the construction of the Mekedatu dam will not hinder the stipulated quantum of water release to Tamil Nadu nor be utilized for irrigation purposes.
    • Allocation of funds and willingness to negotiate: The Karnataka government has earmarked Rs 1,000 crore for the project, indicating its commitment. It also expresses willingness to engage in discussions and negotiations with Tamil Nadu to address concerns and find a resolution.
    • Clearance of feasibility study: The Central Water Commission cleared a feasibility study for the Mekedatu project in 2018, providing additional support for Karnataka’s justifications and indicating the project’s viability.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken?

    (a) Cauvery and Tungabhadra

    (b) Godavari and Krishna

    (c) Mahanadi and Sone

    (d) Narmada and Tapti

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    [pib] India concludes 46th World Heritage Committee Session in New Delhi

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: 46th World Heritage Committee, UNESCO

    Why in the News?

    • The 46th Session of the World Heritage Committee has concluded successfully.
      • It was the first time India hosted this international assembly.

    Capacity-building initiatives proposed by India

    • India pledged $1 million to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to support capacity-building initiatives and conservation projects in developing countries.
    • India proposed to develop and implement training programs for heritage professionals from around the world.
    • India proposed exchange programs for heritage professionals and researchers.
    • Leading Indian heritage institutions, such as the Archaeological Survey of India and the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), will play a key role in implementing the initiatives.

    About the World Heritage Young Professional Forum

    • The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
    • The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
    • The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

    Description
    UNESCO World Heritage Sites Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties.
    Importance World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history.
    Selection Criteria Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc.
    Conservation World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence.
    World Heritage Committee Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term.
    Membership India is NOT a permanent member of the World Heritage Committee.

    It has been selected for a term from 2021 to 2025.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Russian Invasion of Ukraine: Global Implications

    Why are Russian athletes ‘banned’ from the 2024 Paris Olympics?

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Paris Olympics

    Why in the News?

    • Athletes from Russia and Belarus are banned from participating in the ongoing Paris Olympics under their nations’ official flags.
      • Many of them compete under a separate category called Athletes Individuals Neutres (AIN) in French, which means Individual Neutral Athletes.

    Reason 

    • The ongoing war in Ukraine and the conflict between Israel and Hamas add to the geopolitical tensions.
    • The Paris Summer Olympics are “the most geopolitically charged Olympics in decades.”
    • The International Olympic Committee (IOC) sanctioned Russia and Belarus after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
      • The invasion violated the Games’ Olympic Truce, which says nations should not attack each other from 1 week before the Olympics to 1 week after the Paralympics.
      • Belarus was implicated for allegedly allowing Russia to use its territory for military purposes.
    • In October 2023, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended after declaring authority over Ukrainian sports organizations in certain regions.

    Political Neutrality and Violations

    • The IOC cited Russia’s International Friendship Association (IFA) as a political body violating the IOC charter.
    • The charter states that sports organizations within the Olympic Movement should apply political neutrality.
    • Russia’s announcement of the Friendship Games in 2024 led to accusations of politicizing sports.
    • Critics note the concept of “political neutrality” is not based on objective criteria and is challenging to interpret consistently.

    What is Individual Neutral Athletes (AINs)?

    • The IOC allows athletes from these countries to participate as individual-neutral athletes (AINs).
      • Athletes must not represent their country or any associated organization.
      • They cannot actively support the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
    • AINs are athletes with Russian or Belarusian passports qualified through existing qualification systems.
      • They will compete under a neutral flag and uniform, with a neutral song played if they win medals.
      • The audience cannot wave their flags.

     

    Do you know?

    The Indian Olympic Association was suspended in 2014, leading to three athletes competing under the Olympic flag.

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  • What is Oropouche Fever?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Oropouche Fever

    Why in the News?

    Brazil has reported the first deaths from Oropouche fever.

    About Oropouche Fever

    • Oropouche fever is a viral disease caused by the Oropouche virus.
    • The virus is transmitted primarily through the bites of infected midges, specifically the Culicoides paraensis, and mosquitos.
    • The World Health Organization (WHO) reported the first-ever outbreak in Cuba on June 11, 2024.

    Symptoms:

    • Symptoms are similar to those of dengue fever and typically begin between four to eight days after the bite.
    • Common symptoms include:
      • Sudden onset of fever
      • Headaches
      • Body aches
      • Chills
      • Joint stiffness
      • Nausea and vomiting (occasionally)
    • Most patients recover within seven days, and severe cases are rare.
    • There is no evidence of human-to-human transmission.

    Treatment and Prevention

    • There is no specific vaccine or antiviral treatment for Oropouche fever.
    • Treatment is usually symptomatic, focusing on relieving fever and pain.
    • Preventative measures include avoiding bites from midges and mosquitos by using repellents, wearing protective clothing, and using insect nets.

    PYQ:

    [2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine?

    (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium
    (b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection
    (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria
    (d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    What is FnCas9 Enzyme?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: FnCas9 Enzyme

    Why in the News?

    • Scientists from the “CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology” have developed an enhanced genome-editing system using FnCas9 that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
      • CRISPR occurs naturally in some bacteria, as a part of their immune system that limits infections by recognizing and destroying viral DNA.

    What is FnCas9?

    • FnCas9 is a variant of the Cas9 enzyme derived from the bacterium Francisella novicida.
    • It is used in genome editing technologies, particularly within the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system, to make precise modifications to DNA sequences.

    What is CRISPR-Cas9 System?

    • CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome-editing tool adapted from a natural bacterial defense mechanism against viruses.
    • Bacteria use CRISPR sequences to store segments of viral DNA, which helps them recognize and combat viruses in subsequent infections.
    • The most commonly used Cas9 enzyme is derived from Streptococcus pyogenes.

    Mechanism:

    • Guide RNA (gRNA): A specifically designed RNA molecule that matches the target DNA sequence.
    • Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors that cut DNA at a location specified by the gRNA.
    • Proto-spacer Adjacent Motif (PAM): A short DNA sequence adjacent to the target site that Cas9 must recognize and bind to in order to cut the DNA.
    • DNA Repair: Once the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms either repair the break or introduce desired genetic changes.

    Applications:

    • Agriculture: Enhancing crop yield and nutritional value.
    • Healthcare: Diagnosing and treating genetic disorders.
    • Research: Studying gene functions and interactions.

    Challenges with Traditional Cas9: SpCas9 can sometimes cut DNA at unintended sites, leading to potential unintended genetic modifications.

    How FnCas9 overpowers traditional Cas9 (SpCas9)?

    • FnCas9 is known for its higher specificity in targeting DNA sequences compared to SpCas9, resulting in fewer off-target effects.
    • More accurate targeting reduces unintended genetic modifications.
    • It ensures more reliable and safer genome editing.

    Achievements by Indian Scientists

    • Scientists at the CSIR-IGIB in New Delhi have modified FnCas9 to enhance its efficiency without compromising specificity.
    • Key Modifications include:
      • Amino Acid Tinkering: Researchers modified amino acids in FnCas9 that interact with the PAM sequence to increase binding affinity.
      • Improved Binding: Enhanced binding affinity allows FnCas9 to sit more securely on the DNA, improving gene-editing effectiveness.
      • Flexibility: The enhanced FnCas9 can access and edit hard-to-reach regions of the genome.

    Experimental Results:

    • Enhanced FnCas9 cuts target DNA at a higher rate than the unmodified version.
    • FnCas9 improved ability to detect single-nucleotide changes in the genome, broadening its diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
    PYQ:

    [2019] What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    [2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:

    (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing

    (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism

    (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression

    (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    DAC approves amendment to MQ-9B UAV deal with US

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: MQ-9B HALE UAV

    Why in the News?

    • The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) has reviewed and approved amendments to the deal for 31 MQ-9B High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) from General Atomics of the US.
      • The DAC also approved a proposal for the scheduled refit of aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya later this year.

    About MQ-9B HALE UAV

    • The MQ-9B drone is a version of the MQ-9 “Reaper” and has two models: Sky Guardian and Sea Guardian.
    • It is built by the General Atomics.
    • This drone can fly over 40,000 feet high, making it useful for watching the Himalayan border areas.
    • It can stay in the air for up to 40 hours, perfect for long surveillance missions.
    • The MQ-9B has advanced features like automatic take-off and landing, a system to avoid other objects, secure GPS, and encrypted communications.
    • It can offer 80% of a manned aircraft’s capabilities at 20% of the cost per hour.
    • Deployment:
      • The MQ-9B drones are planned to be deployed at four places, including INS Rajaji near Chennai and Porbandar in Gujarat, by the Indian Navy.
      • The other two services will keep them jointly at two bases in Sarsawa and Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh at Air Force bases due to long runway requirements.

    Specifications of the Procurement:

    • India is looking to procure 31 MQ-9B UAVs, including 15 Sea Guardians for the Indian Navy and 16 Sky Guardians (eight each for the Indian Army and Air Force).
    • The Indian Navy has leased two MQ-9As with the maiden flight taking place on November 21, 2020.
    • The estimated cost is $3.99 billion.
    • As part of the deal, General Atomics will establish a Global Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India, contributing to offset obligations.

    Significance of the deal

    • The SeaGuardian model can help the Navy patrol large areas more economically than manned aircraft.
    • For the Army and Air Force, these drones will help monitor movements along the borders, especially with China.

    Back2Basics: Defence Acquisition Council (DAC)

    Details
    Constitution Established under the Defence Ministry for guiding defence procurement planning.
    Role Highest decision-making body in the Defence Ministry for new policies and capital acquisitions for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Indian Coast Guard.
    Formation Created in 2001 following recommendations on reforming the National Security System after the Kargil War.
    Chairman Minister of Defence.
    Members Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Minister of State for Defence, Three Service Chiefs (Army, Navy, Air Force), Chief of Integrated Staff Committees, Defence Secretary, Secretary Defence Research & Development.
    Functions
    • In-principle approval of the 15 Year Long-Term Integrated Perspective Plan for Defence Forces.
    • Accord of Acceptance of Necessity for acquisition proposals.
    • Categorize acquisition proposals into ‘Buy’, ‘Buy & Make’, and ‘Make’.
    • Decisions on offset provisions for acquisitions above Rs. 300 crores.
    • Decisions regarding the transfer of technology under the ‘Buy & Make’ category.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?

    (a) An Israeli radar system

    (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme

    (c) An American anti-missile system

    (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Specie in news: Charles Darwin’s Frog

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Charles Darwin’s Frog

    Why in the News?

    • The Charles Darwin frog, a species native to the Andaman Islands, is exhibiting unusual mating and egg-laying behaviors. 

    About Charles Darwin’s Frog

    • Charles Darwin’s frog, scientifically known as Minervarya charlesdarwini, is a frog species endemic to the Andaman Islands.
    • This species is named after the famous naturalist Charles Darwin.
    • It belongs to the family Dicroglossidae, a large group of Asian frogs with over 220 species.
    • Detailed morphological descriptions and specific physical characteristics are still being studied.
    • The species is listed as VULNERABLE on the International Union for Conservation (IUCN) Red List.

    Study and Findings:

    • The frog species engages in upside-down mating and egg-laying behavior.
    • The frogs increasingly use artificial objects, such as plastic sapling bags and discarded containers, as breeding sites.
    • This shift is likely a response to habitat loss and fragmentation, forcing the frogs to adapt to rapidly changing environments.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to India’s biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are:

    (a) Birds
    (b) Primates
    (c) Reptiles
    (d) Amphibians

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    CITES eases Export of Agarwood from India

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Agarwood

    Why in the News?

    • India successfully prevented the inclusion of Aquilaria malaccensis (agarwood) in the Review of Significant Trade (RST) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
      • CITES notified a new export quota for Aquilaria malaccensis from India, effective April 2024.

    What is Agarwood?

    • Agarwood (the Wood of Gods) also known as “Oud,” is a highly valuable and aromatic resinous wood produced by the Aquilaria tree.
    • The resin forms in the heartwood of the tree when it becomes infected with a particular type of mold (Phialophora parasitica).
    • This infection causes the tree to produce a dark, fragrant resin, which is highly sought after for its distinctive aroma.
    • This contains essential oils with compounds like sesquiterpenes, chromones, and phenylethyl chromone derivatives.
    • It thrives in tropical forests, at altitudes up to 1000 meters, often found in areas with high humidity and rainfall.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Status: Listed as Critically Endangered.
      • CITES: Listed in Appendix II in 1995 based on India’s proposal at CoP9 in 1994.

    Uses of Agarwood

    • It is traditionally used as incense.
    • Extracts (agarwood oil) are used in perfumes, the aroma industry, medicine, air fresheners, and purifiers.
    • Essential oil has anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, analgesic, and anti-oxidant properties.
      • Agarwood cultivation is prevalent in parts of India, especially in the Northeast.
      • This development will benefit lakhs of farmers in districts of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura.

    What is the issue over the inclusion of ‘Agarwood’ (Aquilaria malaccensis) in the RST of the CITES list?

    • Aquilaria malaccensis was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1995, which means its trade is controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with its survival.
    • The RST process assesses whether trade in a species is detrimental to its survival and recommends actions to ensure sustainability.
    • India’s stance was supported by a study conducted by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), which suggested that the harvest from wild populations should be prohibited, while allowing harvest from plantations and private/community lands.

    Arguments against Inclusion in RST

    • Controlled Harvesting: India argued that it has established controlled harvesting practices, ensuring that only cultivated agarwood is used for trade.
    • Economic Impact: Inclusion in the RST could have disrupted the livelihoods of farmers and traders who depend on agarwood cultivation, particularly in the northeastern states of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura.
    • Sustainable Practices: The NDF indicated that the current practices in India were sustainable and that the species was being cultivated widely, reducing pressure on wild populations.

    New Export Quota

    • Establishment of Quota: CITES notified a new export quota for agarwood from India, effective from April 2024. The quota was set at 1,51,080 kg/year for agarwood chips and powder/sawdust, and 7,050 kg/year for agarwood oil.
    • Formal Trade: The absence of an export quota for a long period had led to informal trade and increased prices. The new quota aims to regulate and legalize the trade, ensuring benefits to local growers and the economy.
    [2016] With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following statements:

    1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.

    2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical rainforest areas of South India.

    Which of the statements given above is /are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Himachal witnesses gradual snowfall pattern shift  

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Shift in snowfall patterns in Himachal, Rivers and glaciers located

    Why in the News?

    • Himachal Pradesh is experiencing a reducing snow cover over the years.
      • There is a noticeable shift in snowfall occurrence from winter months towards early summer months.

    Findings from the Latest Study:

    • The study by the Centre on Climate Change of Himachal Pradesh Council for Science Technology-Environment (HIMCOSTE) shows an overall decrease of 12.72% in snow cover area in 2023-24 compared to 2022-23.
    • The study used Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) satellite data to analyze snow cover trends.
    • Early winter months (October-November) showed a decrease in snow cover area except for the Ravi basin, which showed a marginal increase in October.
    • Peak winter months (December-January) saw a negative trend in snow cover area.
    • Late winter months (February-March) showed a positive trend with an increase in snow cover area in all basins compared to the previous year.
    • Snow cover area increased in April due to fresh snowfall in the early summer period.

    Impact on Water Availability

    • The decrease in snow cover during peak winter months (December and January) is especially alarming.
    • Snowfall during these months sustains longer and enhances the discharge dependability of major river basins during summer.
    • Reduced snow cover in winter could affect water availability during the summer months.

    Concerns and Implications

    • Environmentalists and scientists are concerned about the shifting snowfall patterns.
    • Depleting snow cover and changing snowfall patterns have significant impacts on hydro-power, water sources, people, livestock, forests, farms, and infrastructure.

    Back2Basics: Rivers of Himachal Pradesh   

    Description
    Satluj
    • Originating from Rakas Lake in Tibet, the Satluj River is the longest river in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It flows through the districts of Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, and Bilaspur, and enters Punjab near Nangal.
    • The river is crucial for hydropower generation and irrigation.
    • Hydropower Dams: Bhakra Dam (Bhakra-Nangal Project), Nathpa Jhakri Dam, Karcham Wangtoo Dam.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Rakas Lake (Tibet), Zema Glacier, Shipki La Glacier.
    Beas
    • The Beas River originates from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass.
    • It flows through the districts of Kullu, Mandi, Hamirpur, and Kangra, eventually entering Punjab.
    • It is known for its picturesque valleys and is significant for agriculture and hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: Pandoh Dam, Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Beas Kund Glacier.
    Ravi
    • Originating from the Bara Bhangal Glacier in the Himalayas, the Ravi River flows through the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh.
    • It eventually enters Pakistan. The river is crucial for both hydropower and irrigation in the region.
    • Hydropower Dams: Chamera Dam (Chamera I, II, and III).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Bhangal Glacier.
    Chenab
    • The Chenab River, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers, originates from the Bara Lacha Pass in Lahaul-Spiti.
    • It flows through the districts of Lahaul and Chamba before entering Jammu and Kashmir.
    • It is one of the largest rivers in terms of discharge and is vital for hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: No major dams within Himachal Pradesh, but significant potential for hydropower.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Shigri Glacier, Miyar Glacier.
    Yamuna
    • The Yamuna River originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Garhwal Himalayas.
    • It forms the eastern boundary of Himachal Pradesh with Uttarakhand.
    • It is one of the most sacred rivers in India and supports major irrigation systems downstream.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects within Himachal Pradesh (major dams located downstream in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Yamunotri Glacier.
    Spiti
    • The Spiti River originates from the Kunzum Range and flows through the cold desert region of Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It joins the Satluj River near Khab. The river is known for its stunning landscapes and unique ecosystem.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects (projects primarily focused on other rivers in the region).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Kunzum Range Glaciers.
    Parbati
    • The Parbati River originates from the Parbati Glacier in the Kullu district.
    • It is a tributary of the Beas River.
    • The river is significant for its hydropower potential and scenic beauty, attracting many trekkers and nature enthusiasts.
    • Hydropower Dams: Parbati Hydroelectric Project.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Parbati Glacier.

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  • President appoints six new Governors  

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Appointment of Governors

    Why in the News?

    President Droupadi Murmu has appointed six new Governors and reshuffled three others.

    New appointments:

    Name New Position
    Om Mathur Governor of Sikkim
    K. Kailashnathan Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry
    Santosh Kumar Gangwar Governor of Jharkhand
    Jishnu Dev Varma Governor of Telangana
    Ramen Deka Governor of Chhattisgarh
    C.H. Vijayashankar Governor of Meghalaya
    Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde Governor of Rajasthan

    About the Office of Governor and his/her Appointment

    Details
    Role
    • Constitutional head of a state, similar to the President at the central level.
    • Exists in states, while lieutenant governors and administrators are in union territories.
    • Independent constitutional office, not subordinate to Central government.
    Articles Articles 153 to 167 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the state executive
    Part of State Executive Consists of the Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, and Advocate General
    Borrowed Office
    • From the Government of India Act of 1935.
    • Canadian model adopted: Governor appointed by President by warrant under his hand and seal.
    Dual Role
    • Chief executive Head of the States (nominal).
    • Agent of the central government.
    Qualifications
    • Constitutional: Citizen of India, 35+ years old.
    • Conventional: Outsider to the state, President consults the Chief Minister.
    Oath
    • Administered by the Chief Justice of the state High Court (or senior-most judge available)
    • Swears to execute office faithfully, preserve the Constitution, and serve the people
    Term of Office
    • No fixed term, holds office for 5 years subject to President’s pleasure
    • Eligible for reappointment.
    • Can be transferred or hold office beyond term until successor assumes charge
    Removal
    • Can resign by addressing the President
    • Can be removed by the President at any time without specified grounds
    • Chief Justice of state high court may temporarily discharge functions in contingencies
    Additional Functions
    • Acts on advice of Chief Minister and Council of Ministers
    • Holds executive power, legislative power (to some extent), and discretionary power
    • Functions as Chancellor of state universities, where applicable
    Reforms  stipulated by Sarkaria Commission (1988)
    • Governor should be appointed by the President after consulting the Chief Minister.
    • Should be a person of eminence, not belonging to the state.
    • Should not be removed before term completion except in rare circumstances.
    • Act as a bridge between the center and state.
    • Exercise discretionary powers judiciously.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) In India, the same person cannot be appointed as Governor for two or more States at the same time

    (b) The Judges of the High Court in India are appointed by the Governor of the State just as the Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President

    (c) No procedure has been laid down in the Constitution of India for the removal of a Governor from his/her post

    (d) In the case of a Union Territory having a legislative setup, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Lt. Governor on the basis of majority support.

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