Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)
Why in the News?
India is set to launch its first human underwater submersible (deep-sea manned vehicle) in 2025, marking a significant achievement in the country’s scientific and technological journey.
About the Submersible:
- The submersible will initially operate at a depth of 500 meters, with the goal of reaching a depth of 6,000 meters by next year.
- Part of the Deep Ocean Mission, the initiative focuses on exploring untapped underwater resources and advancing India’s blue economy.
- The submersible is being developed using 100% indigenous technology, demonstrating India’s commitment to self-reliance in advanced science and innovation.
- The mission aims to unlock vast underwater resources, including: Critical minerals, Rare metals and undiscovered marine biodiversity.
About the Deep Ocean Mission (DOM):
- DOM is an ambitious initiative by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) approved in 2021 to develop technologies for deep-sea exploration.
- Part of the 9 missions under the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).
Important updates in DOM: Samudrayaan and Matsya6000:
- Launched in 2021 under DOM, Samudrayaan is India’s flagship crewed expedition to reach a depth of 6,000 m in the Central Indian Ocean.
- The mission will utilize Matsya6000, a deep-ocean submersible designed for a three-member crew.
- Construction: Made from titanium alloy to endure pressures up to 6,000 bar.
India’s Ocean Exploration Milestones:
- 1981: Ocean studies began with a program on polymetallic nodules (PMN) initiated at CSIR-NIO, marked by the collection of the first nodule sample from the Arabian Sea aboard the research vessel Gaveshani.
- 1987: India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
- Allocated 1.5 lakh km² in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for nodule exploration, based on extensive surveys by CSIR-NIO.
- 2002: India signed a contract with the ISA; after resource analysis, surrendered 50% of the allotted area, retaining 75,000 km².
- Further studies narrowed the mining area to 18,000 km², identified as the First Generation Mine-site.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tea Board, Tea Cultivation in India
Why in the News?
India, the world’s second-largest tea producer after China, has become the largest importer of tea from Kenya, signaling a shift in global tea trade dynamics.
Key Highlights of Tea Trade
- Imports surged from 3.53 million kg in 2023 to 13.71 million kg in 2024, reflecting a significant 288% increase.
- The average price of Kenyan tea imported to India was ₹156.73 per kg, significantly lower than ₹252.83 per kg fetched by Assam tea at auctions up to October 2024.
- India’s tea exports increased by 13%, rising from 184.46 million kg in 2023 to 209.14 million kg in 2024.
- Assam and West Bengal were major contributors to exports, accounting for the bulk of the tea exported.
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About Tea Board of India
- The Tea Board of India was established in 1954 under the Tea Act, 1953, succeeding the Central Tea Board and Indian Tea Licensing Committee.
- It was originally formed under the Indian Tea Cess Bill (1903) to promote Indian tea domestically and internationally.
- It is headquartered in Kolkata, with 23 offices across India, including zonal, regional, and sub-regional offices.
- It functions as a statutory body under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, with 31 members, including representatives from Parliament, tea producers, traders, and trade unions.
- Provides financial and technical assistance for tea cultivation, manufacturing, and marketing, supports R&D to improve tea quality, and monitors pesticide residue compliance.
Tea Crop in India
- Under the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), the East India Company gained control of Assam, laying the foundation for India’s commercial tea industry.
- The British finally introduced tea to India in the 19th century to compete with China’s monopoly, establishing the first commercial tea garden in Chabua, Assam, in 1837.
- Tea requires 20°C–30°C temperatures and 150–300 cm annual rainfall with slightly acidic, well-drained soil for optimal growth.
- India is the second-largest tea producer globally and the largest consumer, accounting for 30% of global tea consumption, with major production in Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
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PYQ:
[2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements:
- The Tea Board is a statutory body.
- It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
- The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.
- The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vaigai River and its tributaries
Why in the News?
The Madras High Court has issued directives to local bodies in Madurai, Theni, Dindigul, Sivaganga, and Ramanathapuram districts to submit a comprehensive action plan with timelines to mitigate pollution in the Vaigai River.
About Vaigai River
| Geographical Features and Location |
- Originates from the Varusanadu Hills in the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu.
- Flows through Madurai, Theni, Dindigul, Sivaganga, and Ramanathapuram districts.
- Length: Approximately 258 km, draining into the Palk Strait.
- Major towns along the river include Madurai.
- Historical site Keeladi is also located along the river.
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| Major and Minor Tributaries |
- Major Tributaries: Suruliyar River, Varaha River, Manjalar River, Kottagudi River, and Kridhumaal River.
- Minor Tributaries: Sambanadi River, Kumilaar River, and Utharakosa Mangaiyar River.
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| Conservation Sites and Programs |
- Srivilliputhur Megamalai Tiger Reserve: Acts as a vital catchment area and supports biodiversity.
- Vaigai Dam: Built near Andipatti, providing irrigation and drinking water.
- Vaigai River Restoration Program: Focuses on cleaning, improving water quality, and promoting biodiversity.
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PYQ:
[2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.
(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.
(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pangsau Pass
Why in the News?
The Pangsau Pass International Festival returns to Nampong, Arunachal Pradesh, from January 20-22, 2025, celebrating India-Myanmar cultural ties and heritage after a four-year gap.
About Pangsau Pass
- Pangsau Pass is a vital mountain pass located on the India-Myanmar border, connecting the Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh, India, with the Sagaing Region of Myanmar.
- Situated in the Patkai Hills, it lies at an altitude of approximately 3,727 feet (1,136 meters) above sea level.
- Often referred to as “Hell Pass” due to its challenging terrain and dense forests, it serves as both a geographical marvel and a historical landmark.
Geographical Significance:
- Strategic Location: Acts as a natural link between India and Myanmar, facilitating cross-border trade and cultural exchanges.
- Scenic and Biodiverse: Attractions include the Lake of No Return, a mythical body of water in Myanmar associated with World War II legends.
- Tourism Potential: The Pangsau Pass International Festival showcases the region’s tribal cultures, boosting local economies and promoting tourism.
Historical/Political Significance
- The pass was a crucial part of the Stillwell Road (Ledo Road), constructed during World War II to connect India to China through Myanmar.
- It played a pivotal role in the China-Burma-India Theater, facilitating supply lines for Allied forces.
- It serves as a gateway for implementing India’s Act East Policy, aimed at strengthening ties with Southeast Asia.
- It facilitates cross-border trade and cultural exchanges, fostering economic and diplomatic relationships between India and Myanmar.
- It enables communities on both sides of the border to engage under the Free Movement Regime (FMR) (now suspended), allowing visitors to travel up to 16 km into each other’s territories without visas or passports.
PYQ:
[2012] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:
1. Deep gorges
2. U-turn river courses
3. Parallel mountain ranges
4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidences for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geographical Indications (GI) Tags
Why in the News?
Union Minister of Commerce & Industry has announced an ambitious target to achieve 10,000 Geographical Indication (GI) tags by 2030.
About Geographical Indications (GI) Tags
- A GI is a sign identifying a product as originating from a specific geographical location, possessing qualities, reputation, or characteristics inherently linked to that origin.
- It is governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, effective from September 2003.
- It is defined under Article 22(1) of the WTO’s TRIPS Agreement.
- It is managed by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- GI tags are valid for 10 years and can be renewed upon expiry.
- Darjeeling Tea was the first product to receive a GI tag in 2004–05.
- Purpose and Benefits:
- Protects the identity of unique products linked to specific regions.
- Promotes economic development, cultural preservation, and export potential.
Procedural Implementation and Recognition of GI’s:
- Authority for GI Tags:
- The Controller-General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks, under the Trade Marks Act, 1999, serves as the Registrar of Geographical Indications.
- The register for GIs is divided into:
- Part A: Registration of GIs.
- Part B: Registration of authorized users.
- Application Process:
- Applications can be made by individuals, associations of persons, producers, or authorized organizations representing the producers’ interests.
- Applications must include details about the product’s quality, nature, reputation, geographical environment, manufacturing process, natural and human factors, and a map of the production territory.
- Scrutiny and Decision:
- The Registrar conducts a preliminary review for deficiencies, with applicants given one month to address any issues.
- Accepted applications are advertised in the GI Journal, inviting objections.
- If unopposed, a certificate of registration is granted.
- Timeframe:
- Registration must be completed within 12 months; otherwise, the Registrar may abandon the application after notifying the applicant.
PYQ:
[2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?
1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees
2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma
3. Tirupathi Laddu
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 only 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Keeling Curve
Why in the News?
Atmospheric CO₂ levels hit a record high in 2024 due to wildfires and human activities, as shown by the Keeling Curve, a 67-year record maintained at Mauna Loa Observatory since 1958.
What is Keeling Curve?
- The Keeling Curve is a long-term record of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, initiated by Charles David Keeling in 1958 at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii.
- It tracks the rise in CO₂ levels and provides evidence of the impact of human activities on climate change.
- Named after Charles David Keeling, it has become a globally recognized tool for understanding global warming.
Significant Features and Sources:
- Steady Upward Trend: Demonstrates a consistent rise in atmospheric CO₂ levels since 1958, primarily due to fossil fuel combustion and deforestation.
- Seasonal Fluctuations:
- CO₂ levels decrease during spring and summer as plants absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis.
- Levels increase during fall and winter when plant decay releases CO₂.
- Initial Measurements: Recorded CO₂ levels at 315 ppm in 1958.
- Current Levels: As of January 2025, CO₂ concentrations have reached 427.1 ppm, the highest in millions of years.
- Data Sources: Measurements are taken from Mauna Loa Observatory and other global monitoring stations.
Observations around the Curve
- Key Milestones:
- 1988: CO₂ levels reached 350 ppm, drawing global attention to climate change.
- 2023: Levels exceeded 420 ppm, marking a critical point in atmospheric history.
- 2024: Record growth of 3.58 ppm in average annual CO₂ concentrations compared to 2023.
- Contributing Factors:
- El Niño: Surface temperature rise in the Pacific Ocean boosted CO₂ emissions during 2024, exacerbated by wildfires in North and South America.
- Anthropogenic Emissions: Burning fossil fuels and land-use changes remain major contributors.
- Global Implications:
- Contradicts IPCC scenarios for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, as emissions continue to rise.
- Record increases in CO₂ levels during El Niño events highlight the interplay between natural phenomena and human activities.
PYQ:
[2011] Consider the following:
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Decay of organic matter
4. Volcanic action
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on Earth?
(a) 1 and 4 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jawaharlal Nehru Port
Why in the News?
The Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA) in Mumbai is on track to become India’s first port to join the ranks of top global ports by handling 10 million TEUs (twenty-foot equivalent units) annually by 2027.
About the Jawaharlal Nehru Port
- JNP is situated in Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, covering an area of 200 square kilometers. Its strategic location enables vital trade links with international shipping routes.
- Key Features:
- India’s first 100% Landlord Major Port.
- Operates five container terminals, including BMCT, NSICT, and GTIPL.
- Customs facilities: 30 container freight stations and connectivity to 52 inland depots.
- Handles vessels with 9,000 TEUs capacity, soon upgrading to 12,200 TEUs.
- Processes 200 international ships monthly.
- Future Developments:
- Fourth Container Terminal operational by April 2025, adding 4.8 million TEUs capacity.
- Developing a satellite port at Vadhvan and dry ports at Jalna and Wardha.
Key Highlights of JNPA’s Expansion
- In 2024, JNPA handled its highest-ever container volume of 7.05 million TEUs, operating at more than 90% capacity.
- The port recorded an 11% year-on-year growth compared to the previous year.
- The second phase of Bharat Mumbai Container Terminal will add 2.4 million TEUs to JNPA’s total capacity.
- The upgradation of Nhava Sheva Freeport Terminal in 2025 will further enhance the port’s capabilities.
- The total container handling capacity is projected to increase from 7.6 million TEUs to 10.4 million TEUs by 2027.
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PYQ:
[2016] Recently, which of the following States has explored the possibility of constructing an artificial inland port to be connected to sea by a long navigational channel?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Chhattisgarh
(c) Karnataka
(d) Rajasthan |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pinaka Rocket System
Why in the News?
The Indian Army is bolstering its artillery strength with a significant ₹10,200 crore order for ammunition associated with the Pinaka Multi-Launch Rocket System (MLRS).
About the Pinaka Rocket System
| Details |
- A multi-barrel rocket launcher developed by DRDO and manufactured by Indian defence firms.
- Named after the legendary bow of Lord Shiva, symbolizing power and precision.
|
| Key Features |
- Multiple Launch Capability: Fires 12 rockets in just 44 seconds, delivering overwhelming firepower.
- Mobility: Mounted on 8×8 or 6×6 trucks, allowing rapid deployment in diverse terrains.
Range:
– Pinaka Mk-I: 40 km.
– Pinaka Mk-II and Enhanced Versions: 60–75 km.
– Guided Variant: 90 km, with improved accuracy and reduced collateral damage.
- Guidance and Precision: Equipped with satellite-based guidance for precision targeting.
- Payload Options: Carries multiple warheads, including high explosives, incendiaries, anti-personnel, and anti-tank bomblets.
- Quick Deployment and Reloading: Rapid deployment enables swift counter-strikes.
- Modularity and Expandability: Modular design supports advanced technology integration for network-centric warfare.
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| Operational Use |
- Proven effectiveness in mountainous and rugged terrains.
- Played a critical role in Indian Army operations, showcasing its adaptability and firepower.
|
| Significance |
- Boost to Artillery Strength: Enhances the Indian Army’s firepower with new regiments and extended-range rockets.
- Cornerstone of Modernization: Central to India’s artillery modernization for precision and operational flexibility.
- Border Security and Deterrence: Secures borders and acts as a strategic deterrent against adversaries.
- Global Success: Strengthens India’s defense export market and contributes to defense diplomacy.
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PYQ:
[2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Mission SCOT
Why in the News?
Onboard SpaceX’s Transporter-12 mission, Indian space surveillance firm Digantara successfully launched SCOT (Space Camera for Object Tracking), the world’s first commercial Space Situational Awareness (SSA) satellite.
About Mission SCOT:
| Details |
- World’s first commercial SSA satellite, designed to track and characterize Resident Space Objects (RSOs) in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
- Launched via SpaceX’s Transporter-12 mission as part of a rideshare program.
- Supported by Aditya Birla Ventures and SIDBI.
| Note: As part of the Network for Space Objects Tracking and Analysis (NETRA), ISRO is also developing a Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) network equipped with advanced radars and optical telescopes to strengthen threat analysis and safeguard space assets. |
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| Aims and Objectives |
- Enhancing Space Safety: Prevent satellite collisions and optimize orbital resources.
- Sovereign Surveillance: Strengthen India’s capabilities to protect its space assets.
- Technological Leadership: Address gaps in global SSA technologies.
- Sustainability: Promote safer and more sustainable space operations.
|
| Features/Significance |
- Operates in a sun-synchronous orbit, unaffected by weather or geography.
- Tracks RSOs as small as 5 cm with high revisit rates and accuracy.
- Safeguards critical satellites crucial for economic and strategic security.
- Optimizes traffic management and enhances collision avoidance.
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| Contribution to India’s Growth |
- Demonstrates India’s leadership in SSA technologies.
- Highlights the role of Indian startups in space innovation.
- Establishes India as a reliable international space partner.
- Fosters investment in advanced surveillance technologies for future space developments.
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PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
(d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chincholi Wildlife Sanctuary
Why in the News?
The Kalaburagi Forest Division is working to relocate a hamlet within the Chincholi Wildlife Sanctuary on the Karnataka-Telangana border to a safer area.
About the Chincholi Wildlife Sanctuary
| Details |
- Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2011, covering 134.88 sq. km.
- Recognized as the first dryland Wildlife Sanctuary in South India.
- Located in the Kalaburagi District, renowned for its floristic diversity.
- Contributes to the conservation of dryland ecosystems.
|
| Geographical Location |
- Situated in the Hyderabad Karnataka region.
- Features the Chandrampalli Dam and four smaller dams within the sanctuary.
|
| Flora and Fauna |
- Flora: Rich in medicinal plants and tree species like Red Sanders, Sandalwood, Acacia, and Teak.
- Fauna:
- Mammals: Blackbuck, Common Fox, Four-horned Antelope, Indian Wolf, Hyena, and Fruit Bat.
- Birds: Over 35 species, including Black Drongo, Black-winged Kite, Blossom-headed Parakeet, Blue Pigeon, Black-headed Oriole, and Grey Partridge.
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| Climatic/Geographical Features |
- Comprises dry deciduous and moist deciduous forests.
- Fringes are planted with Acacia and Teak.
- Supports a dryland ecosystem with water bodies like the Chandrampalli Dam.
- Features a mix of arid and semi-moist climatic conditions.
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PYQ:
[2018] In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary located?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Manipur
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Doctrine of Merger and its implications
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court clarified the “doctrine of merger,” stating that only one final decree or order can govern the same matter. When a higher court rules on a case, its decision overrides the lower court’s decree, becoming the binding and operative order.
What is ‘Doctrine of Merger’?
- The Doctrine of Merger is a legal principle that governs the relationship between decisions or decrees passed by different judicial forums in the hierarchy.
- It holds that once a superior court disposes of a case, the decision or decree of the lower court merges with that of the superior court.
- This doctrine ensures that there is only one operative and binding decree governing a subject matter at a given point in time.
- The doctrine applies when the order or decree of a lower court is subjected to an appeal, revision, or review before a higher court.
- It ensures that there is no ambiguity regarding which order is binding and enforceable.
- Key Features of the Doctrine of Merger
-
- Single Operative Decree: The doctrine ensures that once a higher court has passed its judgment, there cannot be multiple operative decrees for the same subject matter.
- Scope: Applicable when a lower court’s order is challenged before a superior court. The higher court’s decision, whether confirming, modifying, or overturning the lower court’s decree, becomes the final and binding authority.
- Effect of Merger: The lower court’s decree is no longer independently enforceable; it is subsumed within the superior court’s order.
Legal Basis and Precedents:
- Kunhayammed v. State of Kerala (2000): The superior court’s decree, whether it confirms, modifies, or sets aside the lower court’s decree, replaces the lower court’s decision.
- Logic of the Doctrine: “There cannot be more than one decree or operative order governing the same subject matter at a given point of time.”
- Jurisdictional Hierarchy: This principle is applied in cases of appeals and revisions where the decision of the higher forum takes precedence over that of the lower forum.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither I nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Turmeric Board, Turmeric Cultivation in India
Why in the News?
The Union Minister of Commerce & Industry inaugurated the National Turmeric Board in New Delhi, with Palle Ganga Reddy appointed as its first Chairperson.
About the National Turmeric Board
| Details |
- Operates under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
- Headquarters: Nizamabad, Telangana.
- Aim: To enhance turmeric production, support farmers, and boost global exports.
|
| Structural Mandate |
- Chaired by a Central Government appointee.
- Includes representatives from the Ministry of AYUSH, Department of Pharmaceuticals, Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, and Department of Commerce.
- Rotating senior representatives from three states are also part of the Board.
|
| Powers and Functions |
- Promotes awareness of turmeric’s medicinal and essential properties.
- Supports farmers across 20 states, including Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
- Facilitates research, value addition, and development of new products for domestic and global markets.
- Enhances logistics, supply chains, and trade opportunities.
|
| Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Production in India |
- Turmeric is also known as ‘Golden Spice’.
- It thrives in temperatures ranging between 20°C and 30°C with high annual rainfall.
- India is the largest producer, consumer, and exporter of turmeric globally.
- Cultivates 30+ varieties over 3.05 lakh hectares, producing 10.74 lakh tonnes (2023-24).
- Accounts for over 70% of global turmeric production and 62% of world exports.
- Key exporting markets: Bangladesh, UAE, the US, and Malaysia.
- GI-tagged turmeric includes Lakadong (Meghalaya), Kandhamal (Odisha), and Erode (Tamil Nadu).
- Note: The Centre does NOT declare MSP for Turmeric.
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PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following:
- Areca nut
- Barley
- Coffee
- Finger millet
- Groundnut
- Sesamum
- Turmeric
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has announced the Minimum Support Price for which of the above?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 7 only
(b) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Konark Wheels, Sun Temple, Kalinga Architecture
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Mines, in collaboration with the Government of Odisha, has set up the DMF (District Mineral Foundation) Exhibition at the iconic Sun Temple, Konark.
About the Sun Temple
- It is located approximately 64 km from Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
- It was built in the 13th century (around 1250 CE) during the reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
- It is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God.
- It is designed as a massive chariot drawn by 7 horses with 24 intricately carved wheels.
- It was constructed from Khondalite stone, known for its durability and intricate carvings.
- The structure originally included a sanctum (deul) and an assembly hall (jagamohan) that have largely collapsed.
Historical Significance:
- The Konark Wheel, featured on Indian currency (old ₹20 and new ₹10 notes), symbolizes Odisha’s rich cultural heritage and national identity.
- It reflects 13th-century advancements in timekeeping and astronomy through its sundial functionality.
- It embodies the cycle of life and serves as a testament to the worship of Surya, the Sun God.
- It is a key example of the Kalinga architectural style, highlighting the Eastern Ganga Dynasty’s achievements.
Architectural Significance:
- Design: Represents a chariot of the Sun God, drawn by 7 horses, with 24 intricately carved wheels.
- Wheel Details:
- Diameter: 9 feet 9 inches.
- Spokes: 8 wide and 8 thin, symbolizing prahars (three-hour periods).
- Symbolism:
- 7 horses: 7 days of the week.
- 12 pairs of wheels: 12 months.
- 24 wheels: 24 hours in a day.
- Sundial Functionality: Two wheels act as sundials, showing time from sunrise to sunset using the axel’s shadow.
- Carvings: Features intricate designs of foliage, animals, and human figures, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship.
PYQ:
[2012] The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the:
(a) Three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent
(b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified
(c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture
(d) Three main musical Gharanas prevalent in India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IGICB Scheme, NIXI
Why in the News?
The National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) has introduced the Internet Governance Internship and Capacity Building Scheme, aiming to enhance awareness and develop expertise in Internet Governance (IG) among Indian citizens.
About Internet Governance Internship and Capacity Building (IGICB) Scheme:
|
Details |
| About the Scheme |
- Launched by National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) under MeitY.
- Aims to build expertise in Internet Governance (IG) and enable global participation.
Aims and Objectives:
- Develop Expertise: Build Indian talent in Internet Governance.
- Enhance Global Participation: Collaborate with organisations like ICANN, ISOC, and IETF.
- Promote Digital Inclusivity: Ensure India’s representation in global forums.
- Foster Leadership: Shape future tech policy leaders.
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| Structural Mandate |
- Tracks: Six-month and three-month internship programs.
- Mentorship: Guided by experts from ICANN, APNIC, and academic advisors.
- Support Mechanism: Stipend of ₹20,000/month and support for outreach programs.
- Online Portal: Applications via NIXI Scheme Portal, with biometric verification.
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| Features of the Scheme |
- Global Exposure: Collaboration with leading organisations like ICANN, ISOC, and IEEE.
- Capacity Building: Focus on cybersecurity, Internet Governance, and digital policy.
- Mentorship: Hands-on guidance by seasoned professionals.
- Youth Engagement: Attracts young talent passionate about Internet Governance.
- Policy Impact: Strengthens India’s voice in global Internet Governance forums.
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What is National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI)?
- Establishment: Founded on June 19, 2003, under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).
- Purpose: A not-for-profit organisation facilitating increased internet penetration and adoption across India.
- Key Services:
- Internet Exchange Points (IXPs): Builds infrastructure for internet exchange points.
- .IN Registry: Promotes .in domain digital identity.
- IRINN: Facilitates adoption of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dark Oxygen
Why in the News?
Deep-sea researchers have initiated a groundbreaking project to explore dark oxygen, a form of oxygen produced in complete darkness on the ocean floor.
What is Dark Oxygen?
- Dark oxygen refers to oxygen produced at extreme ocean depths without the involvement of photosynthesis.
- This process occurs in total darkness on the ocean floor, challenging the traditional understanding that sunlight is necessary for oxygen generation.
- It was first discovered in 2024 by researchers studying deep-sea environments.
- The strange nodules found at a depth of 13,000 feet act like natural batteries, splitting water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen using electrical charges.
- These nodules function in areas where light does not penetrate, under extreme pressure and low-temperature conditions.
- Occurrence:
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- Found in specific deep-sea zones, particularly in regions characterized by unique electrochemical activity.
- Occurs in places previously considered incapable of supporting oxygen production.
Features and Significance of Dark Oxygen:
- Unlike traditional oxygen production, dark oxygen does not rely on photosynthesis or sunlight.
- It is driven by electrochemical reactions occurring naturally in the ocean floor.
- Strange nodules on the ocean floor possess an electric charge, enabling them to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen.
- The process releases hydrogen, which could potentially serve as an energy source for microbial life in these regions.
PYQ:
[2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?
(a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium
(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
(c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus
(d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Why in the News?
The 1st Battalion of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) celebrated its 20th Raising Day.
About the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
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Details |
| About |
- Constituted under Section 44 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 for specialized disaster response.
- Functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and is headed by a Director General (DG), typically an IPS officer.
- Initially established in 2006 with 8 battalions, now expanded to 16 battalions.
- Operates under the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), chaired by the Prime Minister.
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| Powers and Functions |
- Primary Role: Rescue and relief operations during natural and man-made disasters such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, building collapses, and accidents.
- Strategic Deployment: Resources are pre-positioned during imminent disaster situations to minimize damage.
- Active in international relief efforts, including the 2011 Fukushima disaster and the 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
- Provides multi-skilled, highly specialized responses, with capabilities for handling complex disaster scenarios.
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| Composition |
- Consists of 16 battalions, each with 1,149 personnel.
- Personnel are drawn from Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs): CRPF, BSF, CISF, ITBP, SSB, and Assam Rifles.
- Members are trained in disaster response, relief, and recovery operations.
- Focus on proactive availability and pre-positioning during disasters to ensure quick response.
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IMPORTANT: National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
- The NDRF is a statutory body constituted under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
- It supplements State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) of a State, in case of a disaster of severe nature, provided adequate funds are not available in SDRF.
- The July 2015 guidelines states that natural calamities of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack and cold wave and frost will qualify for immediate relief assistance from NDRF.
- NDRF is managed in the “Public Accounts” under “Reserve Funds not bearing interest”.
- The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) audits the accounts of NDRF.
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PYQ:
[2020] Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Protected areas mentioned
Why in the News?
A recent faunal survey conducted in the Munnar Wildlife Division has documented 24 new species of birds, butterflies, and odonates, enriching its biodiversity checklist.
Which are the surveyed sites?
All the surveyed national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are located in Kerala, India, specifically in the Idukki district:
- Mathikettan Shola National Park (MSNP): It is a biodiversity hotspot and part of the Western Ghats.
- Pambadum Shola National Park (PSNP): It is Kerala’s smallest national park and home to unique flora and fauna.
- Anamudi Shola National Park (ANP): Named after Anamudi, the highest peak in South India.
- Kurinjimala Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS): Located in Idukki, it protects the habitat of the Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana), a flower that blooms once every 12 years.
- Eravikulam National Park (ENP): Famous for the Nilgiri Tahr.
- Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (CWLS): Situated in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats, near the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border in Idukki.
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Key Highlights of the Survey
- New Species Added: 24 new species, including birds (11), butterflies (8), and odonates (5).
- Total Documentation:
- Birds: 217 species recorded; checklist updated to 258.
- Butterflies: 166 species recorded; checklist updated to 246.
- Odonates: 5 new records, checklist updated to 58 species.
- Notable Wildlife Observed: Mammals like Nilgiri Tahr, tigers, leopards, and elephants; 12 species of reptiles and amphibians.
About the Added Species
- Birds:
- New Additions: Brown Hawk Owl, Barred Buttonquail, Spotted Owlet, Mottled Wood Owl, Baya Weaver, Red Munia, Richard’s Pipit, Jerdon’s Bushlark, Golden-Headed Cisticola, Large Grey Babbler, Chestnut-Bellied Nuthatch.
- Highlights: Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Steppe Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, Indian Grey Hornbill, and Blue-eared Kingfisher.
- Butterflies:
- Endemic Species: Red-disc Bushbrown, Palni Fritillary, Nilgiri Tiger, Nilgiri Four-ring.
- Unique Sightings: Grass Jewel (smallest butterfly in Kerala), Southern Birdwing (largest butterfly in India).
- Odonates (flying insects):
- New Records: Cratilla lineata calverti, Macrodiplax cora, Palpopleura sexmaculata, Tholymis tillarga, Lestes elatus.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to India’s biodiversity Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are:
(a) Birds
(b) Primates
(c) Reptiles
(d) Amphibans |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Launh stations in India
Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet approved the construction of a third launchpad at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. In 2024, PM laid the foundation stone for ISRO’s second rocket launchport at Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu’s Thoothukudi district. (The first one being the Dr Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.)
Who was Satish Dhawan?
- Born in Srinagar, Satish Dhawan was a prominent Indian rocket scientist and is hailed as the ‘Father of Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research’ in India.
- Succeeded Vikram Sarabhai as ISRO Chairman in 1972.
- Oversaw a period of extraordinary growth in India’s space program, including the development of:
- INSAT: India’s telecommunications satellite system.
- IRS: The Indian Remote Sensing satellite program.
- PSLV: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, which positioned India as a major spacefaring nation.
- Legacy:
- Passed away in 2002, after which the Sriharikota space center was renamed the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in his honor.
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About the New Launchpad
- The new launchpad at Sriharikota aims to bolster India’s space capabilities.
- It will support Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) missions and enhance ISRO’s capacity to launch advanced satellites and spacecraft.
- Significance: This is India’s sole operational spaceport, serving as the hub for spacecraft and satellite launches since its inception.
How and why was Sriharikota selected as the Launch Site?
- 1960s Search: India’s search for an ideal launch site began in the 1960s when the country decided to develop indigenous satellites and launch vehicles.
- Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India’s space program, tasked EV Chitnis to identify a site on the east coast.
- Survey and Acquisition: By October 1968, approximately 40,000 acres of land were acquired in Sriharikota.
- Reasons for Choosing Sriharikota:
- East Coast Location: Launching rockets eastward takes advantage of Earth’s rotational speed, adding an extra velocity boost of 450 m/s, especially beneficial for geostationary satellites.
- Proximity to the Equator: Rockets launching near the equator require less energy to reach geostationary orbits, making the location ideal for such missions.
- Uninhabited Area: The site’s sparse population minimizes risks during rocket launches and component re-entry.
- Access to the Sea: Proximity to the Bay of Bengal ensures that rocket debris falls into the sea, avoiding hazards to land or human settlements.
- Strategic Accessibility: Adequate access to resources, infrastructure, and government support facilitated the development of a robust launch facility.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
- PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
- Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
- GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Namdhari Sect
Why in the News?
Punjab CM paid tribute to the Kuka martyrs at a function held at the Namdhari Shaheed Smarak in Malerkotla. The day commemorates the execution of 66 Namdhari Sikhs (Kukas) on January 17 and 18, 1872, by British colonial authorities.
Who are the ‘Namdharis’?
- The Namdharis, also called Kukas, are a Sikh sect founded by Satguru Ram Singh on April 12, 1857, in Ludhiana, Punjab.
- The name Kuka derives from their distinctive high-pitched recitation of Gurbani (kook in Punjabi means “cry” or “scream”).
- Social Reforms:
- Advocated against alcohol consumption, meat eating, and other social vices.
- Promoted Swadeshi principles, urging people to boycott foreign goods, British services, and educational institutions.
- The movement served as a precursor to nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement, emphasizing self-reliance and resistance against colonial rule.
About the Kuka Rebellion
- The Kuka Rebellion was one of the localized uprisings against British rule after the Rebellion of 1857.
- The Namdharis actively opposed British policies, particularly cow slaughter, which became a focal point of their resistance.
- Key events leading to the rebellion:
- In January 1872, Namdharis, led by Hira Singh and Lehna Singh, clashed with British authorities after a cow slaughter incident in Malerkotla.
- They attacked the Malaudh Fort in Ludhiana, loyal to the British, but the rebellion was crushed.
- British Retaliation:
- The British responded brutally, executing 49 Namdharis on January 17, 1872, and 17 more on January 18, 1872.
- The Kukas were placed in front of cannons and blown up in a public spectacle to intimidate others.
Kuka Martyrs’ Day
- It is observed on January 17 and 18 each year to honor the 66 Namdharis who were executed in 1872.
- Significant Stories of Bravery:
- Bishan Singh (12 years old): Refused to renounce his sect despite being offered his life and was brutally executed after tugging the beard of a British official.
- Waryam Singh: Courageously used stones to elevate himself to the cannon’s mouth for execution, showing unwavering dedication.
- Legacy:
- After the rebellion, Satguru Ram Singh and other Namdhari leaders were exiled to Rangoon.
- Namdharis believe Ram Singh is still alive and mourn his absence by wearing white.
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PYQ:
[2016] The ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Boycott’ were adopted as methods of struggle for the first time during the:
(a) Agitation against the Partition of Bengal
(b) Home Rule Movement
(c) Non-Cooperation Movement
(d) Visit of the Simon Commission to India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lokpal and Lokayukta; Powers and Functions
Why in the News?
12 years after its enactment, the Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013, has seen limited impact, with the Lokpal ordering just 24 investigations and granting 6 prosecution sanctions.
History of Lokpal:
- The First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC-I) recommended establishing an anti-corruption ombudsman for India in 1966.
- Several Lokpal Bills were introduced between 1971 and 2008, but none were passed.
- In 2011, activist Anna Hazare’s Jan Lokpal Andolan led to significant public pressure for an anti-corruption framework.
- This movement resulted in the enactment of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, which provides for the appointment of:
- Lokpal at the Centre.
- Lokayuktas in states to address corruption cases involving public servants.
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About Lokpal and Lokayukta
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Lokpal |
Lokayukta |
| About |
- Envisioned under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, it is India’s first anti-corruption ombudsman at the central level.
- Covers corruption cases involving public servants, including the Prime Minister (with exceptions), Union Ministers, MPs, and central government officials.
- Appointed by the President on the recommendation of a Selection Committee (includes PM, LoP, CJI, and an eminent jurist).
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- Established under Section 63 of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, as the state-level counterpart to the Lokpal.
- Handles corruption cases involving state public servants, including Chief Ministers, Ministers, MLAs, and state officials.
- Appointed by the Governor, with the composition and appointment process varying across states.
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| Powers and Functions |
- Investigates corruption cases under the Prevention of Corruption Act.
- Can confiscate property acquired through corrupt practices.
- Has jurisdiction over central officials in Groups A, B, C, and D, and institutions receiving significant foreign contributions or government funding.
- Can refer cases to the CBI or its Inquiry Wing for investigation.
- Submits annual reports to the President, which are tabled in Parliament.
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- Investigates cases under state laws, particularly involving state public servants.
- Addresses corruption complaints related to government schemes, contracts, and functioning.
- Powers vary across states, but typically include authority to recommend investigations, disciplinary action, or prosecution.
- Submits annual reports to the Governor, which are presented in the State Legislature.
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| Structural Mandate |
- Composition: Chairperson (former CJI, SC Judge, or eminent person) and up to 8 members, 50% of whom must be from SC/ST/OBC/Minorities/Women.
- Tenure: 5 years or until 70 years of age.
- Salary: Chairperson’s salary equals CJI, members’ salaries equal SC Judges.
- Removal by the President upon SC inquiry for misconduct or incapacity.
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- Composition: Varies by state law but generally includes a Chairperson and members with qualifications similar to the Lokpal.
- Tenure: Defined by state legislation.
- Salary: Modeled on the Lokpal but subject to state laws.
- Removal by the Governor, often following a process modelled on the Lokpal Act.
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PYQ:
[2013] ‘A national Lokpal, however strong it may be, cannot resolve the problems of immorality in public affairs’. Discuss. |
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