Why in the News?
BSNL announced the soft launch of Quantum 5G Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) broadband in Hyderabad.
About Quantum 5G FWA:
- Overviews: It is India’s first SIM-less, fixed wireless access broadband service.
- Development: It delivers fibre-like internet over 5G radio and was developed entirely by Indian vendors under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
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- Customers are provided with a CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) device that connects wirelessly to the nearest BSNL 5G base station.
- The CPE auto-authenticates without requiring a SIM card, using Direct-to-Device technology.
- Internet is delivered over the air, eliminating the need for trenching or fibre installation.
- The service currently reaches 85% of Hyderabad households using BSNL’s existing tower infrastructure.
Key Features:
- Indigenous: Includes core network, RAN, and CPE, all developed by Indian vendors.
- High Performance: Achieves up to 980 Mbps download, 140 Mbps upload, and <10 ms latency—ideal for streaming, gaming, and remote work.
- Quick Setup: Customers can self-install the device with no need for physical fibre connections.
- Enterprise Capability: Supports network slicing and Service Level Agreement (SLA)-backed links for MSMEs and industrial clusters.
- Strategic Vision: Positions BSNL as a leader in next-generation broadband and enhances rural and urban connectivity.
| [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference/differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?
1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G, and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.
2. LTE is data-only technology, and VoLTE is voice-only technology.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
The first Indian inscriptional reference to Halley’s Comet has been discovered on a copper plate dated 1456 CE, from the Vijayanagar Period.
What does the inscription say?
- The inscription was found on a copper plate dated June 28, 1456 CE, during the Vijayanagar Empire, preserved at the Sri Mallikarjunaswamy temple in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh.
- Written in Sanskrit using the Nagari script, it describes the sighting of a comet (dhūmaketu) and a meteor shower, which coincide with the documented appearance of Halley’s Comet that year.
- The inscription records a village grant made by King Mallikarjuna of Vijayanagar to a Vedic scholar named Limgaṇarya from Kaḍiyalapura (likely present-day Kaḍiyapulanka, Kadapa district).
- The grant’s purpose is explicitly mentioned: “to mitigate the great calamity believed to arise due to the appearance of a comet and meteor shower”—a reference to traditional beliefs of such celestial events being inauspicious.
- The Sanskrit phrase “Prakāśyāya mahōtpāta śāntyartham dattavān vibhuḥ” translates to “this grant was made in order to pacify the calamities that may arise due to the illuminating comets and meteor shower upon the king and his kingdom.”
- Though dhūmaketus (comets) are referenced in ancient Indian astronomical texts, this is the earliest inscriptional record linking a comet to a specific historical date and royal response.
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About Halley’s Comet:
- Periodicity: It is one of the most famous periodic comets, visible from Earth approximately once every 76 years.
- Behind its name: It is named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley, who correctly predicted its return in 1758 using Newton’s laws of motion.
- Early observations: The comet has been recorded by observers around the world for over 2,000 years, including in Babylonian, Chinese, and mediaeval European sources.
- Latest appearance: Halley’s Comet last appeared in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061.
- Visibility: It is visible to the naked eye and appears as a bright streak of light with a glowing tail, caused by solar radiation vaporising its icy surface.
- Significance: Its 1456 CE appearance was especially bright and visible across Europe and Asia, and now, for the first time, it has been identified in an Indian epigraphical record.
| [UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?
1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Defence Ministry announced a breakthrough as IIT-Delhi and DRDO scientists successfully demonstrated quantum communication over 1 km in free space.
What is Quantum Communication?
- It is a new way of sending messages so safely that no one can secretly listen in.
- It uses the laws of quantum physics, especially something called quantum entanglement, to make sure that if someone tries to spy on your message, you’ll know immediately.
- In quantum entanglement, two tiny particles (like photons of light) are connected in a mysterious way—whatever happens to one instantly affects the other, even if they’re far apart.
- Because of this, if someone tries to distort one particle, it changes, and the system knows the message isn’t safe anymore.
- This makes quantum communication perfect for defence, banking, and sensitive messages that must stay secret.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) – Explained Simply:
- Imagine you want to lock a box and send it to your friend, but you also want them to have the key—without anyone else being able to copy it.
- QKD is a special way to share that key safely, using quantum particles instead of metal keys.
- Two people use entangled particles to create the same secret key, without anyone else knowing it.
- If someone tries to intercept the key while it’s being shared, the particles will show signs of disturbance, and the system will know to discard it and try again.
- Once both people have the same key, they can use it to lock and unlock messages using regular encryption tools.
- QKD doesn’t send the actual message—it just safely shares the key that keeps messages secret.
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What did the IIT-Delhi team achieve?
- A team led by IIT-Delhi, in collaboration with DRDO, successfully demonstrated entanglement-based quantum communication over 1 km in free space.
- This was done within the IIT-Delhi campus and marks a key advancement from previous experiments using only optical fibre.
- The demonstration achieved a secure key rate of 240 bits per second and maintained a quantum bit error rate (QBER) of under 7%, which is considered acceptable for real-world QKD.
- This capability is a step toward achieving satellite-to-ground quantum communication, enabling encrypted keys to be distributed across vast regions without physical links.
India’s Quantum Communication Journey So Far:
- In 2022, Prof. Kanseri’s team first demonstrated quantum communication between Vindhyachal and Prayagraj.
- In 2023, they expanded this capability to 380 km using standard telecom fibre, achieving a low QBER of 1.48%.
- By 2024, the team established a QKD link spanning over 100 km of optical fibre, further pushing the reliability and reach of India’s quantum infrastructure.
- These achievements are part of India’s larger effort under the National Quantum Mission (2023–2031), which has a budget of ₹6,000 crore to support R&D and deployment in quantum computing, sensing, and communication.
- India now joins an elite group of nations—alongside China and the US—actively building toward a quantum-secure internet, with potential applications in defence, finance, telecom, and cybersecurity.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III |
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Why in the News?
Union Transport Minister announced a new FASTag-based Annual Pass system for private non-commercial vehicles (cars, jeeps, vans) to ensure smoother travel across National Highways.
What are FASTags?
- FASTag is a contactless toll payment system that uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology to enable automatic toll collection at National Highway toll plazas.
- Managed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) and National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), it was launched in 2014 and became mandatory in 2021 for all four-wheeled vehicles.
- It is a sticker affixed on a vehicle’s windshield, linked to a prepaid wallet or savings account. Toll charges are automatically deducted when the vehicle passes through an electronic toll gate.
- It enhances convenience, reduces traffic congestion, and promotes digital payments across India’s highway network.
- As per the Motor Vehicles Rules, FASTags are mandatory for all new four-wheelers and necessary for renewal of fitness certificates and national permits.
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About the FASTag Annual Pass Scheme:
- Overview: It is a new initiative announced by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways to provide cost-effective and hassle-free travel for private non-commercial vehicles.
- Implementation: The pass will be effective from August 15, 2025, and is optional, intended for cars, jeeps, and vans (not for commercial vehicles).
- Objectives: The scheme is designed to reduce per-trip costs (as low as ₹15/toll) and provide savings of up to ₹7,000 annually for frequent travelers.
- Benefits: It allows unlimited passage at National Highway (NH) and National Expressway (NE) toll plazas for either:
- One year, or
- 200 toll crossings, whichever is earlier.
Key Features:
- Eligibility: Applicable only for non-commercial private vehicles with a valid, active FASTag linked to a registered vehicle number.
- Activation: Can be activated via the Rajmargyatra mobile app or NHAI website with a one-time payment of ₹3,000 for FY 2025–26.
- Validity: Covers 200 trips or one year and then reverts to regular FASTag mode unless renewed.
- Trip Count:
- Point-based plazas: Each pass counts as one trip per crossing.
- Closed toll systems: Entry and exit combined count as one trip.
- Transfer Restrictions: The pass is non-transferable and valid only for the vehicle on which the FASTag is registered.
- Coverage: Valid only at NH and NE toll plazas managed by the Centre. It does not apply to state highway or local toll plazas.
- Fee Revision: The base fee may be revised annually starting April 1 every year.
- Existing Users: No need for a new FASTag if one is already affixed and active. The pass can be added on top of the existing tag after eligibility verification.
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:
1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.
2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.
3. Bangladesh-China -India -Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China. How many of the above statements are correct? Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
INS Arnala, the first Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC), was officially commissioned into the Eastern Naval Command at the Naval Dockyard, Visakhapatnam.
About INS Arnala:
- What is it: INS Arnala is the first Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC) commissioned into the Eastern Naval Command on June 18, 2025, at Visakhapatnam.
- Behind the name: It is named after the historic Arnala Fort near Vasai, Maharashtra.
- Development: The vessel was designed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) and built in partnership with L&T Shipbuilders under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
- Project: It marks the beginning of the induction of 16 ASW-SWC class ships, aimed at enhancing India’s shallow water anti-submarine capabilities.
Key Features:
- Propulsion: 77.6 metres long; first Indian Navy warship powered by a Diesel Engine-Waterjet combination.
- Indigenous Content: Over 80% indigenous systems, with contributions from BEL, L&T, Mahindra Defence, and over 55 MSMEs.
- Arsenal: Equipped with a single centreline rocket launcher, lightweight torpedoes, anti-torpedo decoys, and mine-laying systems.
- Sensor Suite: Incorporates Hull-Mounted Sonar (Abhay), Low-Frequency Variable Depth Sonar (LFVDS), and Underwater Acoustic Communication System (UWACS).
- Multi-role Capability: Designed for ASW operations, Search and Rescue (SAR), low-intensity maritime operations, and subsurface surveillance in shallow coastal waters.
Significance:
- Strategic Defence Upgrade: Replaces ageing Abhay-class corvettes and significantly strengthens India’s anti-submarine warfare posture.
- Enhanced Coastal Security: Ideal for detecting midget submarines and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) in waters less than 30 metres deep, where larger warships struggle to operate.
- Make-in-India Milestone: Demonstrates India’s growing self-reliance in defence manufacturing and contributes to the Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
| [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?
Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered submarine (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel* (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier |
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Why in the News?
SEBI has introduced key regulatory relaxations to ease IPO norms and incentivize startups to shift their legal base back to India through reverse-flipping.
About Reverse-Flipping:
- Reverse-flipping refers to the process by which Indian startups that were earlier incorporated abroad shift their domicile back to India, making India their legal and operational headquarters.
- It allows Indian companies to access domestic capital markets, reduce compliance complexity, and align with the evolving global tax and regulatory environment.
- This shift helps startups tap Indian stock exchanges, reduce reliance on foreign jurisdictions, and benefit from a favorable Indian regulatory ecosystem.
Types of Reverse-Flipping
- Share Swap Arrangement:
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- In this structure, shareholders of the foreign parent company exchange their shares for shares in the Indian subsidiary.
- This process may trigger capital gains tax under the Income Tax Act, 1961, especially for Indian shareholders.
- Inbound Merger (Cross-Border Merger):
-
- The foreign parent company merges with its Indian subsidiary, with the Indian entity becoming the surviving legal structure.
- If all conditions under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), the Companies Act, 2013, and National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) are met, this merger route can be tax-neutral.
Key Features:
- Domestic Listing Access: Startups gain access to Indian IPO markets and valuations.
- Simplified Compliance: Reduced legal and regulatory complications from operating across jurisdictions.
- Investor Incentives: SEBI now allows foreign venture funds and AIFs to be counted towards minimum promoter contribution in public issues.
- ESOP Relaxation: SEBI has allowed promoters/founders to retain Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) granted one year prior to the filing of the Draft Red Herring Prospectus (DRHP).
- Capital Market Boost: The move supports India’s goal to become a global startup and financial hub by encouraging reverse-flipping.
- Tax & Legal Alignment: Shifting domicile can help startups comply better with Indian tax and business laws.
Note:
Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) are structured benefit schemes that grant employees the right to purchase shares of their company at a predetermined price—known as the exercise price—after completing a specific period. |
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: As regards returns from an investment in a company, generally, bondholders are considered to be relatively at lower risk than stockholders.
Statement II: Bondholders are lenders to a company whereas stockholders are its owners.
Statement III: For repayment purpose, bondholders are prioritized over stockholders by a company.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I *
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement I explains Statement II
(c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I
(d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct |
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Why in the News?
The Government of India has mandated the use of Indian Standard Time (IST) across all legal, commercial, digital, and administrative sectors.
About Indian Standard Time (IST):
- It is the official time zone of India, set at Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) +5:30 and based on the 82.5° E longitude passing through Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.
- Neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka also use the same UTC+5:30 offset.
- IST meridian passes through 5 Indian states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
- It was established in 1906, replacing older regional time zones like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras Time.
- It is maintained by the National Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL) using ultra-precise atomic clocks, which lose only one second in millions of years.
- India does NOT observe daylight saving time; IST remains constant throughout the year.
Back2Basics:
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):
- GMT is the mean solar time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London.
- It was established in 1884 during the International Meridian Conference as the world’s time standard.
- It is based on astronomical observations, specifically the mean position of the Sun over time.
- It does not change with the seasons and does not observe Daylight Saving Time (DST).
- Although now largely replaced by UTC in scientific and civil contexts, GMT is still used in some regions (e.g., the UK during winter months).
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC):
- UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time.
- It was established in 1960 and is maintained by a network of high-precision atomic clocks worldwide.
- UTC is adjusted periodically by leap seconds to compensate for the Earth’s irregular rotation speed.
- It is used in aviation, computing, space science, and by international organisations like the UN and ITU.
- Unlike GMT, which is purely solar-based, UTC combines atomic time (TAI) with occasional corrections for Earth’s rotation.
IST in Context:
- IST = GMT + 5:30
- IST = UTC + 5:30
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Steps to Implement One Nation, One Time:
[1] Time Dissemination Project:
- It is a government initiative to ensure accurate, synchronised, and secure timekeeping across India.
- It is led by the Department of Consumer Affairs, in collaboration with CSIR-NPL and ISRO.
- Five Regional Reference Standard Laboratories (RRSLs) are being established in Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Faridabad, and Guwahati.
- These labs use atomic clocks and protocols like Network Time Protocol (NTP) and Precision Time Protocol (PTP) to maintain accuracy within microseconds.
[2] Legal Metrology (IST) Rules, 2025: Key Provisions
- Mandatory Use of IST: IST, as maintained by CSIR-NPL, becomes the sole legally recognized time standard in India.
- Prohibition of Foreign Time Sources: Use of foreign systems like GPS time will be banned unless specifically approved by the government.
- Sync Requirements: All government bodies, financial institutions, power grids, and telecom operators must synchronize their systems with IST.
- Audit and Compliance: The system will be monitored through periodic audits and penalties will be imposed for violations.
- Special Exemptions: Activities such as scientific research, astronomy, and national security operations may use alternative time sources after government approval.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following countries:
I. United Kingdom II. Denmark III. New Zealand IV. Australia V. Brazil How many of the above countries have more than four time zones?
(a) All the five (b) Only four * (c) Only three (d) Only two |
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Why in the News?
On June 15, 1215, King John of England agreed to a seminal document called the Magna Carta, laying down principles that would help establish the foundations of modern democracies.
About Magna Carta:
- Overview: The Magna Carta, meaning “Great Charter” in Latin, was signed on June 15, 1215, at Runnymede near London by King John of England under pressure from rebel barons.
- Content: The charter originally had 63 clauses, with two of the most important being:
- Clause 39: Protection against arbitrary arrest and imprisonment.
- Clause 40: Guarantee of justice without delay or denial.
- Context: It was created in response to military defeats and excessive taxation, particularly following England’s loss at the Battle of Bouvines (1214).
- Initial Setback: Though annulled by Pope Innocent III, it was reissued multiple times, especially under King Henry III, and became part of English statutory law.
- How it dealt with the masses: Magna Carta was initially meant to protect free men—mainly land-owning nobles and barons, excluding women, serfs, and commoners.
- Radical Impact: Despite its narrow scope, historians regard it as Europe’s most radical early check on monarchical authority.
- Legal Influence: The charter influenced future legal systems, including the U.S. Constitution, Bill of Rights, and principles like habeas corpus.
- Modern Relevance: Clauses 39 and 40 remain part of UK law today.
- Significance: It is considered one of the earliest documents to limit royal power and lay the foundation for the rule of law and constitutional governance.
Magna Carta of the Indian Constitution: Part III (Fundamental Rights)
- Part III (Articles 12 to 35) of the Indian Constitution is often called the “Magna Carta of India”.
- It guarantees justiciable Fundamental Rights, protecting citizens against arbitrary state action and forming the core of Indian democracy.
- Why it’s called India’s Magna Carta?
- Historical Parallel: Like the 1215 charter, Part III limits government power and guarantees individual freedoms.
- Inspired by the U.S. Bill of Rights, it offers one of the most comprehensive rights charters in the world.
- Legal enforceability empowers courts to uphold citizens’ rights and strike down unconstitutional laws.
- Six Categories of Fundamental Rights:
-
- Right to Equality (Articles 14–18): Equality before law and prohibition of discrimination.
- Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22): Freedom of speech, movement, assembly, etc.
- Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24): Ban on forced labour and child labour.
- Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28): Freedom to practice and propagate religion.
- Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): Rights of minorities to preserve culture and run institutions.
- Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): Right to move the Supreme Court for enforcement of rights.
| [UPSC 2010] The ‘Instrument of Instructions’ contained in the Government of India Act 1935 have been incorporated in the Constitution of India in the year 1950 as:
Options: (a) Fundamental rights (b) Directive Principles of State Policy* (c) Extent of executive power of State (d) Conduct of business of the Government of India |
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Why in the News?
In Assam’s Makum Coalfield, BSIP scientists found 24–23 million-year-old fossil leaves resembling today’s Nothopegia, now limited to the Western Ghats.
![[pib] Ancient Assam Fossils Link to Western Ghats Biodiversity](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/assam-fossil.jpg)
About the Nothopegia Fossil Discovery
- Overview: Palaeo-scientists from Lucknow discovered fossil leaves in the Makum Coalfield of Assam. It dates back 24–23 million years to the late Oligocene epoch.
- Oldest Known Record: These are the oldest known fossils of the Nothopegia genus, a tropical plant now endemic to the Western Ghats, not found in Northeast India today.
- Identification Methods: Researchers used morphological analysis, herbarium comparisons, and cluster analysis to identify the fossil leaves.
- Tropical Legacy: Nothopegia belongs to the Anacardiaceae family and reflects ancient tropical ecosystems that once existed in Northeast India.
- Climate Reconstruction: Using the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP), scientists confirmed that the region once had a warm and humid climate, similar to the present-day Western Ghats.
Why did Nothopegia disappear from the Northeast?
- Tectonic Disruption: The collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the rise of the Himalayas, drastically altering climate, rainfall, and wind patterns in Northeast India.
- Habitat Loss: These shifts caused the region to cool and dry, rendering it unsuitable for tropical flora like Nothopegia.
- Southward Migration: Over time, the plant spread to the Western Ghats, which offered a climatically stable refuge and allowed its survival.
Significance of the Study:
- Climate Lessons: The extinction and migration pattern of Nothopegia illustrates a deep-time example of species response to long-term climate change.
- Scientific Value: Understanding ancient plant resilience aids in predicting survival pathways under current global warming scenarios.
- Refuge Significance: The study highlights how climate refuges like the Western Ghats help preserve ancient lineages during major environmental changes.
| [UPSC 2025] Which of the following are the evidence of the phenomenon of continental drift?
I. The belt of ancient rocks from the Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa. II. The gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side. III. The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) I and III only (b) I and II only (c) I, II and III *(d) II and III only |
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Why in the News?
India is set to test the Extended Trajectory-Long Duration Hypersonic Cruise Missile (ET-LDHCM), an advanced hypersonic missile developed by DRDO under the secretive Project Vishnu.
What is Project Vishnu?
- Overview: Project Vishnu is a top-secret initiative by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) to develop hypersonic missile technologies.
- Strategic Purpose: The project aims to enhance India’s strategic deterrence by delivering high-speed missiles capable of both conventional and nuclear roles.
- Focus: It is specifically designed to counter threats from China and Pakistan, reinforcing regional strike capability.
- Platform Flexibility: A core feature is multi-platform deployment, allowing the missile to be launched from land, air, and naval systems.
- Integrated Technologies: It brings together scramjet propulsion, materials science, and precision guidance into a single hypersonic weapons system.
- Doctrinal Alignment: It reflects India’s shift toward technology-driven warfare and supports its credible minimum deterrence doctrine.
About the ET-LDHC Hypersonic Missile:
- Overview: It is the flagship missile system under Project Vishnu.
- Speed and Range: It reaches Mach 8 (~11,000 km/h) and has a strike range of 1,500 km, making it nearly impossible to intercept with current defence systems.
- Payload Versatility: It can carry 1,000–2,000 kg of conventional or nuclear warheads, allowing mission-specific configurations.
- Propulsion: Powered by an indigenously developed scramjet engine, it uses atmospheric oxygen for combustion, improving fuel efficiency and endurance.
- Strike Capabilities: With evasive manoeuvrability and a flat trajectory, the missile is ideal for deep-penetration and precision attacks.
- Next-Gen Materials: It is built from materials that withstand 2,000°C+ temperatures, ensuring oxidation resistance and structural integrity.
- Launch Platforms: The missile is compatible with land systems, fighter jets, and naval vessels, offering operational flexibility.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
The first Assembly of the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) was held on June 16, 2025, in New Delhi, with the Union Environment Minister presiding over the session.
About the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA)
- Overview: It is a multi-country, multi-agency alliance of 95 countries, both range and non-range, dedicated to the conservation of big cats and their habitats.
- Launch: Proposed by PM Modi in 2019, the alliance was officially launched in April 2023 to mark Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
- Conservation Focus: IBCA seeks to protect and restore populations of 7 big cats: tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.
- Core Functions: The alliance works through advocacy, knowledge exchange, promotion of eco-tourism, and resource mobilisation.
- Conflict Resolution: It aims to reduce human-wildlife conflict and restore degraded habitats critical to big cat survival.
- Global Participation: IBCA brings together 95 range countries from:
- Asia: India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Iran
- Africa: Kenya, Congo, Ghana
- Americas: Brazil, Ecuador, United States
- Europe/Central Asia: Russia, Kazakhstan
- Members: Bhutan, Eswatini, Cambodia, Guinea, India, Liberia, Nicaragua, Somalia and Suriname have deposited an instrument of ratification.
- Institutional Structure: It is governed by a General Assembly, an elected Council, and a secretariat led by a Secretary-General.
- Permanent Base: The ratification of the headquarters agreement has enabled IBCA to set up its permanent headquarters in India.
India’s Role:
- Species Richness: India is home to 5 of the 7 big cats—the tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah—and holds 70% of the world’s tiger population.
- Funding Commitment: The Indian government has committed ₹150 crore (2023–2028) and is attracting additional global contributions to support the alliance’s goals.
- Conservation Leadership: India plays a leading global role in big cat protection, setting benchmarks in wildlife conservation and ecological stewardship.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) has released its Global Liveability Index 2025, evaluating 173 cities worldwide on their quality of life.
About the Global Liveability Index:
- Publisher: It is released annually by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU).
- Purpose: It measures the quality of life in 173 cities worldwide, assessing how challenging or comfortable it is to live in each location.
- Usage: The index informs decisions by corporations, governments, and development agencies, particularly for policy planning and expatriate relocation.
- Five Assessment Categories:
-
- Stability (25%): Considers levels of crime, civil unrest, and terrorism threats.
- Healthcare (20%): Evaluates the quality, accessibility, and availability of medical services.
- Culture & Environment (25%): Includes climate, cultural offerings, and environmental conditions.
- Education (10%): Measures access to public and private education and overall quality.
- Infrastructure (20%): Covers transport, roads, housing, and utility services.
- Scoring: Cities are rated from 1 (intolerable) to 100 (ideal) using 30+ qualitative and quantitative indicators.
Key Global Rankings (2025):
- Top Cities:
- Copenhagen (Denmark) ranked 1st, scoring 98/100 with perfect marks in stability, education, and infrastructure.
- Vienna and Zurich tied for 2nd, followed by Melbourne (4th) and Geneva (5th).
- Regional Trends: Western European cities dominated the top 10, thanks to strong healthcare, education, and public transport systems.
- Asia-Pacific Performers: Melbourne, Sydney, Osaka, Auckland, and Adelaide made the top 10, showing continued high liveability.
- Improvements: Al Khobar (Saudi Arabia) jumped 13 spots due to gains in education and healthcare.
- Lowest Ranked: Damascus (Syria) remains the least liveable, followed by Tripoli (Libya) and Dhaka (Bangladesh).
- India’s Position: Both Delhi and Mumbai ranked 141st out of 173 cities, reflecting persistent issues in healthcare, infrastructure, air quality, and public safety.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to the role of UN-Habitat in the United Nations programme working towards a better urban future, consider the following statements:
1. UN-Habitat has been mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to promote socially and environmentally sustainable towns and cities to provide adequate shelter for all.
2. Its partners are either governments or local urban authorities only.
3. UN-Habitat contributes to the overall objective of the United Nations system to reduce poverty and to promote access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Pune’s Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics (GIPE) has recently called for a neutral takeover of its parent body, the Servants of India Society (SIS), following allegations of financial irregularities.
About Servants of India Society:
- Founding: It was founded on June 12, 1905, in Pune by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, along with N.A. Dravid, G.K. Devadhar, and A.V. Patwardhan.
- Mission: The Society aimed to train Indians for selfless national service, promote education, and work for social and political reform through constitutional means.
- Core Values: Members took vows of simple living, secularism, and equality across caste and religion.
- Non-political Nature: Though non-political and non-sectarian, many SIS members contributed significantly to the freedom movement.
- Prominent Members: Influential members included V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, Hriday Nath Kunzru, and A.V. Thakkar.
- Major Activities: SIS established schools, ran night classes, supported healthcare, and published The Hitavada since 1911.
- Welfare Work: It actively engaged in disaster relief, women’s and child welfare, and rural development.
- Secular Legacy: It was India’s first secular social reform organisation, focusing on nation-building through service.
- Current Status: Headquartered in Pune, it continues to operate today, though with limited membership, preserving its foundational values.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915):
- Early Life: He was a liberal nationalist, senior Indian National Congress leader, and social reformer.
- Political Journey: He joined the Indian National Congress in 1889 under Justice M.G. Ranade and became Congress President in 1905.
- Institution Building: In 1905, Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society to train dedicated public servants.
- Legislative Work: He served in the Bombay Legislative Council (1899) and the Imperial Legislative Council as a non-official member.
- Reform Advocacy: Gokhale played a major role in securing the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and presented India’s economic conditions to the Welby Commission.
- Mentor to Gandhi: Gokhale was a political mentor to Mahatma Gandhi and supported his early work, including funding the Sabarmati Ashram.
- Education and Journalism: He established the Ranade Institute of Economics and launched The Hitavada newspaper (published from Nagpur).
- Philosophy: Gokhale believed in constitutional reform, education, and social justice as the path to Indian self-rule, bridging social reform and political activism.
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| [UPSC 2009] Who among the following rejected the title of knighthood and refused to accept a position in the Council of the Secretary of State for India?
Options: (a) Motilal Nehru (b) M.G. Ranade* (c) G.K. Gokhale (d) B.G. Tilak |
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Why in the News?
A one-day Samyoga event was organised today at the National Institute of Sowa-Rigpa (NISR), Leh, with the participation of experts from 10 states of India.
About Sowa-Rigpa:
- Overview: Sowa-Rigpa, also known as Traditional Tibetan Medicine or the Amchi system, is among the oldest continuously practised medical systems in the world.
- Origin: The term comes from the Bhoti language, meaning “knowledge of healing”, and dates back over 2,000 years.
- Historical Development: It was codified in the 8th century CE during King Trisong Detsen’s reign and further developed in the 12th century.
- Foundational Text: The Gyud-Zi (4 Tantras) integrates ideas from Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, Greek traditions, and Bon and Buddhist philosophy.
- Global Presence: Sowa-Rigpa is practiced in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal, and parts of Russia and China.
- Indian Regions: In India, it is common in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh (Lahaul & Spiti), Jammu & Kashmir, and Darjeeling.
- Core Beliefs: The system promotes disease prevention, longevity, and holistic mind-body well-being, viewing the body as a microcosm of nature in harmony with the environment.
Diagnosis and Treatment:
- Diagnostic Methods: Practitioners use pulse analysis, urine analysis, and detailed observation including case history.
- Therapies Used: Treatments include diet and lifestyle adjustments, herbal medicines, Kunyé massage, moxibustion, acupuncture, and spiritual healing.
- Ayurvedic Influence: About 75% of its theoretical base is derived from Ayurveda, especially the Ashtanga Hridaya.
- Common Herbs: Shared medicinal herbs include Ashwagandha, Triphala, and Guggulu.
Education and Recognition:
- Traditional Training: Knowledge was historically passed through oral traditions, via guru-shishya parampara or family lineages.
- Modern Institutions: The Central Council for Tibetan Medicine oversees education and practice standards.
- National Institute: The National Institute of Sowa-Rigpa (NISR) in Leh leads in education, research, and policy implementation.
- Government Recognition: Sowa-Rigpa has been officially recognised under AYUSH systems in India since 2010 and is promoted in multiple Himalayan states.
| [UPSC 2019] Recently, there was a growing awareness in our country about the importance of Himalayan nettle (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a sustainable source of:
Options: (a) anti-malarial drug* (b) biodiesel (c) pulp for paper industry (d) textile fibre |
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Why in the News?
A new study from the University of Plymouth has revealed that over 21% of the global ocean has significantly darkened in the last two decades.
What is Ocean Darkening?
- Ocean darkening refers to the reduction in sunlight penetration into the ocean’s upper layers, known as the photic zone (up to 200 meters deep), where sunlight drives photosynthesis and supports marine biodiversity.
- This process is measured using the diffuse attenuation coefficient (Kd 490), which tracks how quickly light diminishes as it passes through seawater.
- The photic zone is essential for phytoplankton productivity, oxygen generation, marine food chains, and the regulation of global climate.
Recent Report Citing Ocean Darkening:
- A new study by researchers from the University of Plymouth, published in 2024, titled “Darkening of the Global Ocean”, revealed that 21% of the global ocean has significantly darkened from 2003 to 2022.
- Key findings:
- 9% of the ocean saw a drop of more than 50 meters in light penetration—equal to the area of Africa.
- 2.6% experienced a loss exceeding 100 meters in photic depth.
- Affected Region: The study found the Arctic, Antarctic, Gulf Stream, and North Sea among the worst affected regions.
- Causes:
- Algal blooms from nutrient runoff in coastal areas.
- Warming seas, altered plankton dynamics, and changing ocean currents in open ocean zones.
Implications of Ocean Darkening:
- Ecosystem Disruption: Light-dependent species, such as Calanus copepods, are being pushed into shallower zones, increasing predation and competition.
- Loss of Habitat: The shrinkage of the photic zone could be one of the largest marine habitat losses ever, affecting fish stocks and biodiversity.
- Climate Feedback Loop: Reduced photosynthesis in oceans could weaken the ocean’s role in carbon sequestration and oxygen production, worsening climate change.
- Threat to Global Fisheries: The contraction of productive zones affects fish populations, jeopardising fisheries and food security.
- Scientific Concern: Researchers warn that this hidden crisis could fundamentally alter marine ecosystems if not urgently addressed.
| [UPSC 2025] With reference to the planet Earth, consider the following statements:
I. Rain forests produce more oxygen than that produced by oceans. II. Marine phytoplankton and photosynthetic bacteria produce about 50% of the world’s oxygen. III. Well-oxygenated surface water contains several folds higher oxygen than that in atmospheric air.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) I and II (b) II only * (c) I and III (d) None of the above statements is correct |
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Why in the News?
India advanced its indigenous defence tech with SDAL’s successful trial of the Hybrid VTOL UAV Rudrastra at Pokhran.
About Rudrastra:
- Rudrastra is an indigenously developed Hybrid Vertical Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) UAV built by Solar Defence and Aerospace Limited (SDAL).
- The UAV is engineered for deep-strike capabilities, capable of carrying out precision missions without endangering human soldiers.
- It is tailored for anti-personnel roles, with airburst munitions designed to strike targets across hostile borders.
- Rudrastra blends rotor-based vertical lift with fixed-wing cruise capability, enhancing deployment across diverse terrains.
- It is considered a “stand-off” weapon, enabling missions deep into enemy territory with autonomous return capability.
Key Features:
- Hybrid VTOL Design: Can vertically take off and land like a helicopter and cruise like a fixed-wing aircraft, enhancing flexibility.
- Extended Range: Demonstrated a total mission range of over 170 km, including loiter time over the target.
- Real-Time Surveillance: Maintained a stable video link while covering a 50+ km mission radius.
- Precision Strike Capability: Successfully deployed airburst munitions, effective for area damage and anti-personnel use.
- Endurance: Achieved a flight endurance of 1.5 hours, ideal for extended ISR or strike operations.
- Autonomous Navigation: Returned independently to the launch site after completing the mission.
- Made in India: Fully developed by an Indian defence company, supporting indigenous innovation in combat drones.
| [UPSC 2025] With reference to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consider the following statements:
I. All types of UAVs can do vertical landing. II. All types of UAVs can do automated hovering. III. All types of UAVs can use battery only as a source of power supply.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None* |
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Why in the News?
A recent study confirms that Arabia wasn’t always a desert wall but occasionally a green bridge between continents.
About the Green Arabia Hypothesis:
- Core Idea: It suggests that the Arabian Peninsula, now one of the driest places on Earth, experienced multiple humid phases over the past 8 million years, turning it into a green corridor for early migrations.
- Challenge to Old Views: This theory challenges traditional models that excluded Arabia from early human dispersal routes in the ‘Out of Africa’ narrative.
- Fossil Evidence: The discovery of fossils of crocodiles, hippos, and horses, dating up to 74,000 years ago, supports the claim that Arabia was once lush and habitable.
Key Discoveries and Methods:
- Archaeological Sites: Over 10,000 ancient lakebeds and sites over 500,000 years old were found, confirming Arabia’s role as a migration bridge between Africa and Eurasia.
- Speleothem Analysis: 22 speleothem samples (mineral deposits formed within caves) from seven Saudi caves indicated humid phases between 7.44 million and 60,000 years ago.
- Dating Techniques: Scientists used uranium-thorium dating to accurately time wet periods, revealing patterns linked to monsoon shifts and glacial cycles.
- Environmental Impact: These wet intervals, though brief, supported vegetation, biodiversity, and water bodies, enabling human and animal settlements.
Significance of the Study:
- Biogeographic Role: Arabia is now viewed as a climate-sensitive migratory bridge, not a barrier, in human evolution and dispersal.
- Climate Dependency: Human movement was influenced not just by geography, but by shifts in rainfall patterns and monsoonal activity.
- Key Locations: Sites like Jubbah Oasis provided stone tools and lakebed evidence, validating early human habitation in the region.
- Conclusion: Arabia’s periodic greening played a decisive role in early human migration, revising our understanding of ancient dispersal pathways out of Africa.
| [UPSC 2014] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?
1. Continental drift
2. Glacial cycles Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The fire on MV Wan Hai 503 near Kannur exposed India’s weak maritime safety. With over 140 hazardous containers onboard, it posed a major risk during the monsoon, threatening the environment and lives.
What are the major types of peacetime maritime accidents faced by the Indian coast?
- Sinking of merchant ships – leads to cargo loss, traffic disruption, and environmental damage.
- Fire onboard vessels – threatens coastal life, property, and marine ecology.
- Oil spills – have long-lasting environmental impacts and are difficult to contain.
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Why was the MV Wan Hai 503 incident a significant maritime safety challenge?
- Presence of Hazardous Cargo: Over 140 of the 1,754 containers onboard contained hazardous materials, posing a high risk of toxic release and chemical explosions. Eg: Multiple colors of smoke (brown, white, grey, black) indicated different substances burning simultaneously.
- Proximity to Coastline During Fire: The ship began drifting dangerously toward the Indian coast near Azhikkal, Kerala, during monsoon rough seas, increasing the threat of coastal disaster. Eg: The tow rope initially snapped under pressure, risking further drift and collision with the shore.
- Complexity of Fire-Fighting and Towing: Fire-fighting was complicated by weather conditions and ship instability, requiring precise coordination. Eg: An Indian Navy helicopter had to airdrop a salvage team to pass a steel wire rope for safe towing to deeper waters.
- Multi-Agency Emergency Response Needed: The incident required rapid coordination between the Indian Navy, Coast Guard, and the ship owner’s team using tugs. Eg: The ship was finally stabilized 45 nautical miles offshore, where the water depth was nearly one kilometre, minimizing risk to coastal areas.
How did Indian agencies respond to the fire on MV Wan Hai 503?
- Rapid firefighting efforts amid adverse conditions: The Indian Coast Guard initiated firefighting operations despite rough seas caused by the monsoon. Eg: Firefighting continued while the ship drifted dangerously toward the Kerala coast, with thick smoke from burning hazardous cargo.
- Coordinated aerial and naval action: The Indian Navy deployed a helicopter to airdrop a salvage team onto the ship and deliver a steel wire rope to secure it. Eg: The steel rope enabled safe towing after the initial tow rope snapped due to tension and sea conditions.
- Strategic towing and risk mitigation: Indian agencies, in coordination with the ship owner’s agents and tugboats, towed the vessel 45 nautical milesaway from the coast to prevent environmental and coastal damage. Eg: The vessel was moved to deeper waters (1 km depth) to minimize the impact of any further explosion or sinking.
Why are gas-carrying and oil-laden ships considered severe fire and explosion hazards?
- High flammability of cargo: Gas and crude oil are highly combustible, making these ships extremely prone to fires and explosions if containment fails. Eg: Even a minor spark can ignite vapours from gas or oil, causing catastrophic fires onboard.
- Large volume of hazardous material: These vessels carry enormous quantities of flammable substances, which amplify the scale of damage during accidents. Eg: The New Diamond VLCC was carrying 2,70,000 tonnes of crude oil when it caught fire off Colombo in 2020.
- Critical maritime chokepoint risks: Accidents involving such vessels at strategic locations like the Suez Canal or Strait of Malacca can disrupt global trade and cause widespread damage. Eg: A gas carrier explosion at a maritime chokepoint could halt international shipping routes, impacting global supply chains.
What are the key areas India needs to strengthen in maritime fire-fighting and salvage operations? (Way forward)
- Rapid Salvage Capability: India must improve its ability for quick salvage of sinking or damaged vessels to prevent cargo loss, environmental damage, and navigation disruption. Eg: During the MV Wan Hai 503 incident, timely towing by the Indian Navy helped avert a coastal disaster, but highlighted the need for faster salvage deployment.
- Multi-agency Coordination: Effective response to maritime emergencies requires seamless coordination among the Coast Guard, Navy, port authorities, and private salvage firms. Eg: The successful control of the New Diamond VLCC fire involved joint efforts from Indian and Sri Lankan naval forces.
- Advanced Fire-fighting Infrastructure: India needs to upgrade fire-fighting equipment on patrol vessels and at key ports, especially for handling hazardous cargo and oil/gas fires. Eg: The Coast Guard’s patrol vessels are now fitted with basic fire-fighting systems, but large-scale fires require specialised ships and foam-based suppression systems.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] What are the ways in which oil pollution affects the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?
Linkage: Maritime Accident Response” explicitly talks about the “oil spills” as one of the three major peacetime maritime accidents that the Indian coast needs protection against. It also states that oil is a “more severe fire hazard” than hazardous cargo, especially in the context of gas-carrying merchant ships. This question directly addresses the environmental and national impact of oil pollution, which is a significant aspect of maritime accidents and firefighting efforts.
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Why in the News?
Passively Managed Funds—those that track a market index without active stock selection—have become increasingly popular among investors seeking low-cost, predictable returns.
About Passively Managed Funds:
- Passively managed funds, commonly known as passive funds, are investment vehicles designed to replicate the performance of a specific market index, such as the Nifty Fifty or the Sensex.
- Unlike actively managed funds, the fund manager in a passive fund does not select stocks or make frequent buy-and-sell decisions.
- Instead, the fund holds the same stocks in the same proportion as the underlying index.
- How Passive Funds Work?
-
- These funds track a benchmark index by investing in all or a representative sample of the securities in that index.
- The objective is to mirror the index’s returns, not to outperform it.
- As a result, they incur lower management costs and have minimal portfolio turnover.
Types of Passive Funds:
- Index Funds:
-
- These are mutual funds that can be purchased or redeemed directly from the fund house.
- Transactions are processed only once a day, based on the day’s closing Net Asset Value.
- They offer ease of use and are suitable for systematic investment plans and long-term investors.
- Exchange Traded Funds:
-
- These are funds listed on stock exchanges, like the National Stock Exchange or the Bombay Stock Exchange.
- Investors buy or sell units during trading hours through brokers, just like stocks.
- They require a dematerialised account and are suitable for investors seeking intraday trading flexibility.
Advantages of Passive Funds:
- Low Expense Ratios: Because no active research or trading is involved.
- Transparency: Holdings closely follow a well-known index.
- Diversification: Spreads investment risk across multiple securities.
- No Human Bias: Avoids mistakes due to the fund manager’s poor decisions.
Limitations:
- No Outperformance: Returns will always be close to the index and cannot exceed it.
- Tracking Error: Slight variation between the fund’s performance and the index due to operational reasons.
- Limited Flexibility: Cannot adapt to sudden market downturns.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: As regards returns from an investment in a company, generally, bondholders are considered to be relatively at lower risk than stockholders.
Statement II: Bondholders are lenders to a company, whereas stockholders are its owners.
Statement III: For repayment purposes, bondholders are prioritised over stockholders by a company.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct, and both of them explain Statement I *
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct, and Statement I explains Statement II
(c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I
(d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from Chennai have discovered a new species of jumping spider, ‘Spartaeus karigiri’, belonging to the Spartaeinae subfamily.
About the Spartaeus karigiri :
- Spartaeus karigiri is a newly discovered species of jumping spider, part of the Spartaeinae subfamily within the Salticidae (jumping spider) family.
- It was first identified in the Karigiri (Elephant Hill) region of Devarayanadurga, Karnataka, and is named after this location.
- The species marks the first recorded instance of the Spartaeus genus being found in India, extending its previously known range from Southeast Asia.
- Field specimens were also collected from Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, suggesting a broader habitat.
Key Features:
- Genus Identification: Belongs to the Spartaeus genus, known for its intelligent predation and visual hunting tactics.
- Habitat: Found in rocky outcrops and forested terrain; prefers crevices and protected microhabitats.
- Hunting Behaviour: Likely exhibits web-invasion hunting methods and prey mimicry, similar to other Spartaeinae members.
| [UPSC 2025] Regarding the Peacock tarantula (Gooty tarantula), consider the following statements:
I. It is an omnivorous crustacean.
II. Its natural habitat in India is only limited to some forest areas.
III. In its natural habitat, it is an arboreal species.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only (b) I and III (c) II only (d) II and III * |
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