A recent paper published in Nature by a team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences explored the genetic modification of rice plants to increase Coenzyme CoQ10 production.
What are Coenzymes and CoQ?
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
Coenzymes are organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions, making cellular metabolism more efficient.
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that helps stabilize cells under stress. It is crucial for cellular energy production.
CoQ exists in 10 forms (CoQ1 to CoQ10), all present in the respiratory chain within cells.
Importance of CoQ9 and CoQ10
CoQ9: It is found in cereal crops (wheat, rice, oats, barley, etc.), bamboo, and flowering plants like cinnamon, avocado, and pepper. It is rich in daily foods, making it an accessible nutrient.
CoQ10: It is vital for mitochondrial energy production. Concentrated in high-energy organs like the heart. CoQ10 is crucial for health, especially in those with neurological issues or age-related deficiencies.
Health Benefits of CoQ10:
2008: CoQ10 supplementation helped patients with neurological disorders, improving their health (Montini et al., Milan).
2012: Infants with CoQ10 deficiency benefitted from ubiquinone analogues (Shamima Ahmed, London).
CoQ10-based supplements are now commonly prescribed by healthcare professionals.
[UPSC 2007] Question: Which one of the following is not a digestive enzyme in the human system?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aryabhata
Why in the News?
50 years ago on April 19, 1975, India marked a major milestone in its space history with the successful launch of Aryabhata, its first satellite.
About Aryabhata
Aryabhata, India’s first satellite, was launched on April 19, 1975, with Soviet assistance from the Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome.
Named after the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata, the satellite was a significant milestone in India’s space journey.
It had a unique 26-sided polyhedron design, measuring 1.4 meters in diameter and weighing 360 kg.
The satellite’s faces were covered with solar panels, except for the top and bottom.
Aryabhata orbited the Earth every 96.3 minutes with an inclination of 50.7 degrees, and its apogee and perigee were 619 km and 563 km, respectively.
Its mission was to conduct experiments in solar physics and X-ray astronomy.
Despite experiencing a power failure after 5 days, Aryabhata continued transmitting data for several more days, completing a remarkable 17 years in orbit.
This success was pivotal for India, establishing the country’s space capabilities.
Inception of India’s Space Program:
India’s space program began in the 1960s, led by Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of ISRO.
Sarabhai envisioned a space program to advance technological and scientific progress in India.
Initial efforts included developing sounding rockets under the Rohini rocket program for atmospheric research.
In 1972, India partnered with the Soviet Union for the launch of Aryabhata, marking the nation’s entry into space.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. In the year 2006, India successfully tested a full-fledged cryogenic stage in rocketry.
2. After USA, Russia and China, India is the only country to have acquired the capability for use of cryogenic stage in rocketry.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
A hidden landmass, called the Davis Strait proto-microcontinent, has been discovered beneath the icy waters between Canada’s Baffin Island and Greenland.
About the Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent:
The Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent is a hypothesised landmass located in the Davis Strait, believed to have existed during the Paleozoic era.
It is composed of 19–24 km thick thinned continental crust, surrounded by two narrow bands of 15–17 km thick continental crust.
It is thought to have broken apart due to tectonic movements.
Geological evidence, including similarities in rock formations and tectonic features found in Greenland and parts of the Canadian Arctic, supports the idea of this ancient landmass.
While its exact nature and extent remain debated, the proto-microcontinent is crucial for understanding the tectonic processes that shaped the Atlantic Ocean and surrounding regions.
About Davis Strait:
The Davis Strait is a large body of water located between southeastern Baffin Island (Canada) and southwestern Greenland, serving as part of the Northwest Passage.
It separates the Baffin Bay (to the north) from the Labrador Sea (to the south), and it connects the Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
It is an important maritime route for shipping and trade.
Named after John Davis, the English explorer who navigated the area in the late 16th century, the Davis Strait plays a significant role in the tectonic evolution of the Arctic region.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following:
(1). Electromagnetic radiation (2). Geothermal energy (3). Gravitational force (4). Plate movements (5). Rotation of the earth (6). Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None*
Recent advancements in recycling perovskite solar cells have led to a new water-based solution, offering a more sustainable and efficient approach to solar energy production.
About Perovskite Solar Cells:
Perovskite solar cells are made using a perovskite crystal structure, offering high power conversion efficiencies and low manufacturing costs compared to traditional silicon-based panels.
They are lightweight, flexible, and made from inexpensive materials, making them a promising alternative in the solar energy market.
While efficient, they have a shorter lifespan and contain toxic materials like lead, posing environmental risks during disposal.
Used in solar power generation, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems due to their affordability and performance.
The New Recycling Method:
Researchers have developed a water-based recycling solution, replacing harmful organic solvents with a non-toxic approach.
The process uses three salts: sodium acetate, sodium iodide, and hypophosphorous acid, to dissolve and regenerate perovskite crystals, recovering high-quality material for reuse.
This method maintains nearly the same efficiency as fresh materials, even after five rounds of recycling, recovering 99% of the layers.
It promotes a circular economy, reducing waste and supporting the environmentally friendly recycling of perovskite solar cells.
[UPSC 2014] With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following statements:
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direction conversion of light into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), while solar Thermal generates Direct Current (DC).
3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
Options:
(a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
India has signed a Headquarters Agreement with the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), officially establishing its headquarters in India.
About International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA):
IBCA is a multi-country, multi-agency group of 96 big cat range and non-range countries focused on conserving 7 big cats and their habitats.
It was proposed by PM Modi in 2019, officially launched in April 2023 for Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
It aims to protect and conserve Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma; restore habitats and reduce human-wildlife conflict.
Key activities include- Advocacy, knowledge sharing, eco-tourism promotion, and resource mobilization for big cat conservation.
Currently, India, Nicaragua, Eswatini, and Somalia are members. Though membership is open to 96 range countries with big cat habitats.
Governance: Includes a General Assembly, elected Council, and Secretariat with a Secretary-General.
India’s Role:
India is home to 5 (tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah) of the 7 big cats and 70% of the world’s tiger population, playing a leading role in global wildlife protection.
₹150 crore from the Indian government (2023-2028) with additional contributions from global partners.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2
The Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, a significant religious pilgrimage for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Bon followers, is set to resume after a halt since 2020.
About Kailash Mountain and Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
Kailash Mountain is situated in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, near India and Nepal, standing at 6,638 meters (21,778 feet).
Religious Significance:
Hinduism: Abode of Lord Shiva and Parvati, believed to bring moksha (liberation).
Buddhism: Home of Buddha Demchok, symbolizing bliss.
Jainism: Lord Rishabhanatha attained Nirvana here.
Bon Religion: Center of the universe in Bon faith.
Mansarovar Yatra is the pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake at 4,556 meters (14,950 feet).
This lake is believed to be created by Lord Brahma, bathing here is believed to cleanse sins.
The Yatra is managed by India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) for Indian pilgrims.
Copyright infringement not intended.
Routes to Kailash Mansarovar
Lipulekh Pass: Located at 5,115 meters, this route is 200 km of trekking and has been suspended since 2020 due to geopolitical tensions.
Nathu La Pass: Positioned at 4,310 meters, this 1,500 km motorable route requires 35-40 km of trekking. It has been operational since 2015.
Nepal Route: Available since 2023, this route is managed by private operators, with challenges related to visa and permit requirements.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?
(a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
Why in the News?
The Union Environment Ministry’s 2015 policy mandating the installation of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) equipment in all of India’s 537 coal-fired plants has been scrutinised by a recent study commissioned by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser.
Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
About Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) in Power Plants
FGD is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases in coal-fired power plants.
The process involves passing exhaust gases through a scrubbing system using absorbents like ammonia, sodium sulfite, or limestone.
Methods:
Wet Limestone Scrubbing: Gases pass through a scrubber tower with a slurry of water and limestone.
Dry Sorbent Injection: Uses a dry alkaline agent to neutralize SO₂.
Sea Water-Based Systems: Utilizes seawater’s natural alkalinity to absorb SO₂.
FGD can remove up to 95% of sulfur dioxide, reducing SO₂ emissions significantly.
Reduces sulfur emissions, major contributors to acid rain and air pollution.
FGD Gypsum, a byproduct, can be used in industries like cement manufacturing.
Recent Study on FGD in Power Plants
A study by NIAS critiques India’s FGD policy, recommending limited FGD installations for plants using imported or high-sulfur coal.
92% of coal in Indian plants has low sulfur content (0.3%-0.5%), meaning FGD may not significantly improve local air quality.
Widespread FGD installation could increase power and water consumption, and result in 69 million tonnes of additional CO₂ emissions by 2030.
Removing SO₂ (cooling agent) while increasing CO₂ emissions may accelerate climate change.
Recommendations: Installing electrostatic precipitators (₹25 lakh per MW) can reduce 99% of particulate matter (PM), offering a more cost-effective and impactful solution.
[UPSC 2024] According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which one of the following is the largest source of sulphur dioxide emissions?
Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) has partnered with IIT Bombay to launch a pilot project on Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, integrating electric vehicles into the power grid.
About V2G Technology:
V2G enables Electric Vehicles (EVs) to send power back to the grid when not in use, turning EV batteries into decentralized energy storage devices.
It involves two key functions:
Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V): Power is transferred from the grid to charge the EV.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): Power is sent from the EV back to the grid, making the vehicle a distributed energy source.
Smart charging strategies optimize charging based on grid demand and renewable energy availability, enhancing grid stability and enabling renewable energy integration.
About the KSEB-IIT Bombay V2G Pilot Project:
This pilot aims to assess EVs’ role in supporting the power grid, especially during peak demand periods when solar energy is unavailable.
Kerala’s growth in EV adoption and rooftop solar installations has raised concerns about increased electricity demand, particularly in the evenings.
The project will explore the feasibility of using EVs to reduce grid strain and optimize the use of renewable energy.
Applications of V2G:
Grid Support: EVs can supply power back to the grid during high-demand periods, improving grid stability.
Solar Energy Integration: V2G encourages charging during the day when solar power is abundant, and storing excess energy to supply the grid at night.
Emergency Power Source: EVs can act as backup power during crises or natural disasters, providing electricity to communities.
[UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?
Scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have found signs of possible life on exoplanet K2-18 b by detecting gases usually produced by Earth’s biological processes.
Key findings of the Recent Study:
Scientists detected significant biosignatures in the atmosphere of K2-18 b, including dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS).
These gases, on Earth, are primarily produced by marine phytoplankton.
High concentrations of these gases suggest the possibility of microbial life, particularly in the planet’s oceans.
However, researchers caution that this is not definitive proof of life but a potential biosignature indicating biological processes.
Further studies and observations are needed to confirm whether these gases are biologically produced or the result of other processes.
About James Webb Space Telescope (JWST):
JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST), and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
It isa large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, and its specialised instruments optimised for infrared observations.
Key Objectives:
JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.
[UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to:
Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*
The 6th edition of India-Uzbekistan Joint Military Exercise DUSTLIK-6 commenced at the Foreign Training Node at Aundh in Pune, Maharashtra.
About Exercise DUSTLIK
Exercise DUSTLIK is an annual event alternating between India and Uzbekistan.
It is named after Dustlik, a town in the Jizzakh region of Uzbekistan.
The first edition of the exercise was held in 2019 near Tashkent.
The 5th edition was held in Termez District, Uzbekistan.
4th edition held in Pithoragarh, India, in February 2023.
Objectives and Focus Areas:
Focus on physical fitness, joint planning, and tactical drills.
Emphasis on special arms skills and multi-domain operations.
Tactical drills include establishing command posts, intelligence centers, heliborne operations, and room intervention.
Back2Basics: India’s bilateral exercises with Central Asian Countries
Country
Exercise
Kazakhstan
Ex PRABAL DOSTYK, Ex KAZIND
Kyrgyzstan
Ex KHANJAR
Mongolia
Ex NOMADIC ELEPHANT
Tajikistan
Ex Farkhor
[UPSC 2008] Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
Formal Establishment (1858): The office of the Governor was established under the Government of India Actof1858, which transitioned administration from the East India Company to the British Crown. Governors acted as agents of the Crown and had significant powers in provincial administration.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): The GoI Act of 1919, under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, aimed to increase Indian participation but kept the Governor central to governance, including vetoing Bills passed by legislative councils.
GoI Act of 1935: The GoI Act of 1935 gave provincial autonomy but retained the Governor’s discretionary powers, including vetoing Bills and withholding assent, signalling a transition toward more autonomy while maintaining significant Governor authority.
Post-Independence Transition (1947): As India moved toward independence, the India (Provisional Constitution) Order of 1947 modified the 1935 Act. It removed the phrase “in his discretion,” reducing the Governor’s discretionary powers and signalling a shift to a more symbolic and constitutional role.
Constituent Assembly Debates: It debated whether Governors should be elected or nominated. Concerns over separatism led to the decision that Governors would be nominated by the President to maintain unity and strengthen ties with the Centre, especially after the partition.
Post-Independence Framework: Before Independence, various documents and political proposals, including the Commonwealth India Bill (1925) and the Nehru Report (1928), supported retaining the office of the Governor, inspired by the Westminster model of governance.
Constitutional Role of the Governor:
Article 163: The Governor acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, except in certain discretionary situations.
Ambedkar’s Views: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar advocated for limited use of discretionary powers, ensuring the Governor’s actions align with the advice of the ministers.
Article 200: The Governor must grant assent to Bills, but may withhold assent, reserve the Bill for the President, or return it for reconsideration. Ambedkar amended this in 1949 to ensure the Governor acts in alignment with the elected government.
Symbolic and Impartial Role: The Governor is expected to represent the Union, support democratic functioning, and remain non-interfering in day-to-day state affairs.
Discretionary Powers: The Governor’s discretion is limited to constitutional guidelines and should be used sparingly, ensuring the Governor’s role remains constitutional, not political.
[UPSC 2017] In the context of Indian history, the-principle of ‘Dyarchy (diarchy)’ refers to:
(a) Division of the central legislature into two houses.
(b) Introduction of double government i.e., Central and State governments.
(c) Having two sets of rulers; one in London and another in Delhi.
(d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories. *
A 21-year-long study has resulted in the discovery of a new frog species, Leptobrachium aryatium, named after Arya Vidyapeeth College in Assam.
About the frog ‘Leptobrachium aryatium’
Leptobrachium aryatium, a newly discovered species of frog, was found in the Garbhanga Reserve Forest, located on the southwestern edge of Guwahati, Assam, near the Meghalaya border.
The species was identified through a re-analysis of past research and new studies on the Leptobrachium genus.
Key Features:
Distinctive Eyes: The frog has fiery orange-and-black eyes, setting it apart from other species in the genus.
Reticulated Throat Pattern: A unique reticulated pattern on its throat adds to its distinct appearance.
Smooth, Rhythmic Call: Emits a smooth, rhythmic call at dusk, a feature unique to this species in the genus.
Molecular and Morphological Distinctiveness: DNA analysis and physical studies confirmed it as a new species, distinguished by its unique call and appearance.
[UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?
On April 16, 2025, the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I) has released a first-of-its-kind seed germination database aimed at enhancing the success of growing native plants for ecological restoration.
About the Seed Germination Database:
It was launched by the Ecological Restoration Alliance-India (ERA-I). ERA was formed in July 2021, as an informal collective between practitioners, ecologists and individuals.
ERA-I collaborated with organizations like Auroville Botanical Gardens, NCF, and Wildlife Trust of India.
It features over 1,000 germination techniques for 465 native plant species found across India.
It aims to help restoration practitioners, nursery managers, and native plant enthusiasts improve success rates in growing plants for ecological restoration.
It is a free-access database and offers valuable information on germinating native plants crucial for restoration projects.
Native Plants Included:
The database features a diverse array of native plant species. These species are key to restoring balance in degraded ecosystems.
Native plants are essential for creating climate-resilient ecosystems.
Such database plays a vital role in ecological restoration.
It provides 1,000+ techniques for growing native plants, enhancing the success of restoration projects.
The database supports India’s Bonn Challenge commitment to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030.
[UPSC 2016] In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the ‘Seed Replacement Rates’ of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?
1. There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
2. There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.
3. There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only * (c) 2 and 3 only (d) None of the above
Recent studies reveal that the Indian Plate is splitting into two, with the lower part detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle, a process called delamination, as published by the American Geophysical Union.
About Delamination:
Delamination in tectonic plates refers to the process where the lower part of a continental plate, including the lower crust and/or lithospheric mantle, splits and sinks into the Asthenosphere.
This process is driven by density differences and can lead to rapid uplift, changes in stress regimes, and altered magmatism.
It can occur in various tectonic settings, including compressional zones, subduction zones, and intraplate regions.
The denser lower part of the plate, including the lower crust and/or lithospheric mantle, is less buoyant than the less dense asthenosphere, leading to sinking.
High temperatures can also weaken the lithosphere and facilitate delamination.
Indian Plate and Its Splitting:
The Indian Plate has been colliding with the Eurasian Plate for about 60 million years, causing the formation of the Himalayas and influencing regional seismic activity.
It is shifting northward at a rate of approximately 5 cm per year..
The lower, denser part of the Indian Plate is detaching and sinking into the Earth’s mantle.
This may lead to increased seismic activity due to shifts in tectonic stress.
In regions like the Himalayan collision zone, delamination results in fractures that increase stress in the Earth’s crust, raising the likelihood of seismic events.
[UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault 3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Recently Google introduced its seventh-generation TPU (Tensor Processing Unit), named Ironwood.
About Ironwood
Ironwood is Google’s seventh-generation Tensor Processing Unit (TPU), designed to accelerate AI model training and inference with improved performance and efficiency.
It builds on previous TPUs, enhancing speed and efficiency for AI workloads.
It has been optimized for complex AI tasks, especially those requiring high-speed data processing for neural networks and deep learning models.
Initially used internally, Ironwood is now available via Google Cloud Platform, allowing businesses to harness its power without investing in dedicated hardware.
What is a TPU?
A TPU is a specialized processor developed by Google to accelerate machine learning tasks, particularly those involving TensorFlow.
TPUs are optimized for tensor operations, crucial for training deep learning models, enabling faster data processing and high efficiency.
How is TPU Different from GPU and CPU?
CPU
GPU
TPU
What is it?
Central Processing Unit – General-purpose processor for various computing tasks.
Graphics Processing Unit – Specialized for parallel processing, initially for graphics rendering.
Tensor Processing Unit – Specialized processor designed by Google for accelerating machine learning tasks, particularly for AI and deep learning.
Specialization
General-purpose tasks (sequential processing)
Parallel processing (graphics, machine learning)
Specialized for AI tasks (tensor computations)
Performance
Slower for AI tasks due to sequential processing
Faster than CPU for parallel tasks
Fastest for AI tasks like matrix multiplication
Efficiency
Versatile but less efficient for AI operations
Energy-efficient for parallel tasks
Highly energy-efficient for machine learning
Best for
Running applications, managing systems
Graphics rendering, machine learning
Deep learning, neural network training
[UPSC 2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?
(1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.
About Sir Sankaran Nair:
Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.
Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:
Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.
Other Contributions:
Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following aroused a wave of popular indignation that led to the massacre by the British at Jallianwala Bagh?
(a) The Arms Act (b) The Public Safety Act (c) The Rowlatt Act (d) The Vernacular Press Act
China has suspended exports of a wide range of critical minerals and magnets after US’s tariff embargo.
What Are Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and RE Magnets?
REEs are a group of 17 elements in the periodic table, including Lanthanum (La), Neodymium (Nd), Europium (Eu), and Ytterbium (Yb).
Though not rare, they are found in low concentrations, making extraction challenging and costly.
Classification:
Light REEs (LREEs): Elements 57-63, such as La, Ce, Nd, and Sm.
Heavy REEs (HREEs): Elements 64-71, like Gd, Tb, Dy, and Er.
Scandium and Yttrium: Classified with HREEs due to similar chemical properties.
Rare Earth Magnets are powerful permanent magnets made from elements like Neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm), and Dysprosium (Dy).
They are far stronger and more efficient than traditional magnets, crucial for high-tech electronic applications.
Global Supply Chain of REEs:
REEs are abundant but difficult to extract economically.
China alone dominates, producing 70%of the global supply and controlling 80% of the refining capacity. REEs are primarily mined from China’s Bayan Obo mine.
Australia, USA, Brazil, and Russia also contribute, though less significantly.
Refining also is largelycontrolled by China, though other nations are working to build their own refining capabilities to reduce dependency.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
1. Monazite is a source of rare earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Why in the News?
The Telangana government has officially implemented the sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) into three groups, following a Supreme Court judgment in August 2024 that upheld the constitutionality of sub-classifying SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to grant separate quotas for the most marginalized groups.
About Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Their Subcategorization:
SCs are a historically marginalized group identified in India’s Constitution to receive preferential treatment in education, employment, and political representation.
Constitutional Provisions:
Article 341: Empowers the President to specify castes as SCs within states or UTs.
Article 342: Allows Parliament to include/exclude castes from the SC list.
While grouped for reservations, disparities exist within SCs, with some groups being more disadvantaged than others.
Subcategorization involves dividing SCs into smaller groups based on social, economic, and educational backwardness, ensuring the most marginalized receive targeted benefits.
Sub-classification of SCs and STs for reservations is subject to judicial review to prevent misuse.
Supreme Court Verdict on Sub-categorization: State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2020) Case
In its August 2024 verdict, the Supreme Court allowed states to sub-classify SCs and STs, enabling separate quotas for the most marginalized groups.
Key Points:
Empirical Data: Subclassification must be based on data of systemic discrimination, not political motives.
Creamy Layer: Excludes the more advanced members of SCs/STs, applying the creamy layer principle.
Quota Limits: No sub-categorization can exceed the overall constitutional quota ceiling.
First-Generation Benefit: Reservations are restricted to the first generation of a family that has not benefitted from previous reservations.
[UPSC 2005] Which one of the following statements is correct regarding population?
(a) Bihar has the highest percentage of Scheduled Castes in its population.
(b) The decadal growth of population of India (1991-2001) has been below 20%.
(c) Mizoram is the Indian State with the least population.
(d) Pondicherry has the highest sex ratio among the Union Territories.
The KATRIN (Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment) has made a groundbreaking achievement by measuring neutrino mass with a new precision.
About the KATRIN Experiment:
The KATRIN is located at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), specifically on its Campus North site in Karlsruhe, Germany.
It is aimed at measuring the mass of the electron antineutrino with sub-eV precision.
It has measured the mass of neutrinos by studying the beta decay of tritium, a radioactive form of hydrogen.
The mass was inferred by analyzing the energy of the emitted electrons.
Technological Setup:
A 70-meter-long beamline with a powerful tritium source.
A 10-meter-wide spectrometer to measure the energy of emitted electrons with high precision.
Key Findings:
KATRIN has set a new upper limit for neutrino mass at less than 0.45 eV/c² (8 × 10⁻³⁷ kg), nearly twice as precise as previous measurements from 2022.
Data Collection was based on five campaigns from 2019-2021, totalling 250 days of data.
Neutrinos and Their Properties
Neutrinos are extremely light subatomic particles that rarely interact with matter, making them difficult to detect.
They are found in cosmic rays and solar radiation.
Properties:
Mass: Their small mass influences cosmic structure formation, such as galaxies and clusters.
Weak Interaction: They interact via the weak nuclear force, allowing them to pass through vast amounts of matter.
They are essential in particle reactions and play a key role in galaxy formation and the study of dark matter.
[UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
1.Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
