Author: Ravi Ranjan

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18th Apr 2022

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15th Apr 2022

Trans-Pacific Partnership

• The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), or the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), is a trade agreement between Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, the United States (until 23 January 2017) and Vietnam
• The TPP began as an expansion of the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement (TPSEP or P4) signed by Brunei Darussalam, Chile, New Zealand, and Singapore in 2005
• The TPP contains measures to lower both non-tariff and tariff barriers to trade and establish an investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) mechanism
• The agreement will enter into force after ratification by all signatories if this occurs within two years
• APEC members may accede to the TPP, as may any other jurisdiction to which existing TPP members agree. After an application for membership is received, a commission of parties to the treaty negotiates conditions for accession.

BRICS

• BRICS is the acronym coined for an association of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
• Originally the first four were grouped as “BRIC” (or “the BRICs”), before the induction of South Africa in 2010.
• The BRICS members are known for their significant influence on regional affairs; all are members of G20.
• Since 2009, the BRICS nations have met annually at formal summits. China hosted the 9th BRICS summit in Xiamen on September 2017, while Brazil hosted the most recent 11th BRICS summit on 13-14 November 2019.

New Development Bank and the Fortaleza Declaration

• During the sixth BRICS Summit in Fortaleza (2014), the leaders signed the Agreement establishing the New Development Bank (NDB).
• In the Fortaleza Declaration, the leaders stressed that the NDB will strengthen cooperation among BRICS and will supplement the efforts of multilateral and regional financial institutions for global development, thus contributing to collective commitments for achieving the goal of strong, sustainable and balanced growth.
• The bank was established in July 2015 by the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa).
• The aim of the bank is to mobilize funding for infrastructure and sustainable development.
• Its ownership structure is unique, as the BRICS countries each have an equal share and no country has any veto power.
• In this sense, the bank is a physical expression of the desire of emerging markets to play a bigger role in global governance.
• NDB was created to help fill the funding gap in the BRICS economies and was intended to grow its global scope over time.
• The bank, with its subscribed capital base of US$50bn, is now poised to become a meaningful additional source of long-term finance for infrastructure in its member countries.

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

• The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a trade deal that was being negotiated between 16 countries.
• They include the 10 ASEAN members and the six countries with which the bloc has free trade agreements (FTAs) — India, Australia, China, Korea, Japan, and New Zealand.
• The purpose of the deal is to create an “integrated market” spanning all 16 countries.
• This means that it would be easier for the products and services of each of these countries to be available across the entire region.

RCEP – India

• It comprises half of the world population and accounts for nearly 40% of the global commerce and 35% of the GDP. RCEP would have become the world’s largest FTA after finalisation, with India being the third-biggest economy in it.
• Without India, the RCEP does not look as attractive as it had seemed during negotiations.
• Divided ASEAN – ASEAN has been keen on a diversified portfolio so that member states can deal with major powers and maintain their strategic autonomy. ASEAN member states have tried to keep the U.S. engaged in the region.
• Act East policy has been well received. With China’s rise in the region, ASEAN member states have been keen on Indian involvement in the region.
• Indo-Pacific – India’s entire Indo-Pacific strategy might be open to question if steps are not taken to restore India’s profile in the region.
• Rejected China’s dominance – India signalled that, despite the costs, China’s rise has to be tackled both politically and economically.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

• After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the then security and economic architecture in the Eurasian region dissolved and new structures had to come up.
• The original Shanghai Five were China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan.
• The SCO was formed in 2001, with Uzbekistan included. It expanded in 2017 to include India and Pakistan.
• Since its formation, the SCO has focused on regional non-traditional security, with counter-terrorism as a priority:
• The fight against the “three evils” of terrorism, separatism and extremism has become its mantra.
• Today, areas of cooperation include themes such as economics and culture.

India’s entry to the SCO

• India and Pakistan both were observer countries.
• While Central Asian countries and China were not in favour of expansion initially, the main supporter — of India’s entry in particular — was Russia.
• A widely held view is that Russia’s growing unease about an increasingly powerful China prompted it to push for its expansion.
• From 2009 onwards, Russia officially supported India’s ambition to join the SCO. China then asked for its all-weather friend Pakistan’s entry.

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)

• The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional organization comprising seven Member States lying in the littoral and adjacent areas of the Bay of Bengal constituting a contiguous regional unity. This sub-regional organization came into being on 6 June 1997 through the Bangkok Declaration.
• The regional group constitutes a bridge between South and South-East Asia and represents a reinforcement of relations among these countries.
• BIMSTEC has also established a platform for intra-regional cooperation between SAARC and ASEAN members.  The BIMSTEC region is home to around 1.5 billion people which constitute around 22% of the global population with a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of 2.7 trillion economies. In the last five years, BIMSTEC Member States have been able to sustain an average 6.5% economic growth trajectory despite a global financial meltdown.

SAARC & SAARC Countries

• The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia.  Its member states include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.  SAARC was founded in Dhaka in 1985.
• Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu.
• The organization promotes the development of economic and regional integration.
• It launched the South Asian Free Trade Area in 2006.
• SAARC maintains permanent diplomatic relations at the United Nation as an observer and has developed links with multilateral entities.
• Observers Of SAARC: – States with observer status include Australia, China, the European Union, Iran, Japan, Mauritius Myanmar, South Korea and the United States.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

• The Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten Southeast Asian countries
• It promotes Pan-Asianism and intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational and socio-cultural integration amongst its members and other Asian countries
• It members are Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam
• ASEAN shares land and maritime borders with India, China
• ASEAN is an official United Nations Observer.

The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

• The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seeks to contribute to the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons through the implementation of two sets of Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related exports.
• One of the critical elements for inclusion into the NSG is that the member countries need to signatories of the NPT, a proposal which India has categorically disagreed.
• However considering India’s history of nuclear non-proliferation, the US and subsequently the NSG have shown some recognition and granted India with the waiver of dealing with other countries for nuclear technology.

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

• OPCW is an intergovernmental organization and the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention, which entered into force on 29 April 1997
• The OPCW, with its 193 member states, has its seat in The Hague, Netherlands, and oversees the global endeavour for the permanent and verifiable elimination of chemical weapons
• The organization promotes and verifies the adherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention, which prohibits the use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction
• Verification consists both of evaluation of declarations by member states and onsite inspections
• The OPCW has the power to say whether chemical weapons were used in an attack it has investigated
• The organization was awarded the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize “for its extensive efforts to eliminate chemical weapons”

The Australian Group

• The Australia Group is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) and an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission) established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in 1984) to help member countries to identify those exports which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the spread of chemical and biological weapons
• The group, initially consisting of 15 members, held its first meeting in Brussels, Belgium, in September 1989. With the incorporation of India on January 19, 2018, it now has 43 members, including Australia, the European Commission, all 28 member states of the European Union, Ukraine, and Argentina
• The name comes from Australia’s initiative to create the group. Australia manages the secretariat
• The initial members of the group had different assessments of which chemical precursors should be subject to export control
• Later adherents initially had no such controls
• Today, members of the group maintain export controls on a uniform list of 54 compounds, including several that are not prohibited for export under the Chemical Weapons Convention but can be used in the manufacture of chemical weapons
• In 2002, the group took two important steps to strengthen export control
• The first was the “no-undercut” requirement, which stated that any member of the group considering making an export to another state that had already been denied an export by any other member of the group must first consult with that member state before approving the export
• The second was the “catch-all” provision, which requires member states to halt all exports that could be used by importers in chemical or biological weapons programs, regardless of whether the export is on the group’s control lists.
• Delegations representing the members meet every year in Paris, France

WTO

• US, UK and a few other countries set up, an interim organisation about trade named GATT (General Agreement on Tariff and Trade) in 1947
• GATT was biased in favour of the developed countries and was called informally as the Rich men’s club.
• So, the developing countries insisted on setting up the International Trade Organisation (ITO)
• That’s the reason, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was set up in 1964 as an alternative, on the recommendation of the UN committee
• Next development comes in Uruguay Round of GATT, it sought to expand the scope of the organisation by including, services, investment and intellectual property rights (IPR)
• Agreements were ratified by the legislatures of 85 member-countries by year-end 1994.
• On such rectification, the WTO started functioning from Jan 1, 1995, < Marrakesh Agreement>

Functions of WTO

• The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and intellectual property between participating countries.
• It provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants’ adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.

G20

• Formed in 1999, the G20 is an international forum of the governments and central bank governors from 20 major economies.
• Collectively, the G20 economies account for around 85 percent of the Gross World Product (GWP), 80 percent of world trade.
• To tackle the problems or the address issues that plague the world, the heads of governments of the G20 nations periodically participate in summits.
• In addition to it, the group also hosts separate meetings of the finance ministers and foreign ministers.
• The G20 has no permanent staff of its own and its chairmanship rotates annually between nations divided into regional groupings.

Aims and objectives

• The Group was formed with the aim of studying, reviewing, and promoting high-level discussion of policy issues pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability.
• The forum aims to pre-empt the balance of payments problems and turmoil on financial markets by improved coordination of monetary, fiscal, and financial policies.
• It seeks to address issues that go beyond the responsibilities of any one organisation.

Member Countries

The members of the G20 consist of 19 individual countries plus the European Union (EU).

• The 19 member countries of the forum are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States.
• The European Union is represented by the European Commission and by the European Central Bank.

 Who are the G20 Sherpas?

• A Sherpa is the personal representative of a head of state or government who prepares an international summit, particularly the annual G7 and G20 summits.
• Between the summits, there are multiple Sherpa conferences where possible agreements are laid out.
• This reduces the amount of time and resources required at the negotiations of the heads of state at the final summit.
• The Sherpa is generally quite influential, although they do not have the authority to make a final decision about any given agreement.
• The name is derived from the Sherpa people, a Nepalese ethnic group, who serve as guides and porters in the Himalayas, a reference to the fact that the Sherpa clears the way for a head of state at a major summit.

G7

• The G7 or the Group of Seven is a group of the seven most advanced economies as per the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• The seven countries are Canada, USA, UK, France, Germany, Japan and Italy. The EU is also represented in the G7.
• These countries, with the seven largest IMF-described advanced economies in the world, represent 58% of the global net wealth ($317 trillion).
• The G7 countries also represent more than 46% of the global gross domestic product (GDP) based on nominal values, and more than 32% of the global GDP based on purchasing power parity.
• The requirements to be a member of the G7 are a high net national wealth and a high HDI (Human Development Index).

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Prelims Spotlight: Budget and Economic Survey

14th Apr 2022

The Union Minister for Finance & Corporate Affairs has presented the Economic Survey 2021-22 in Parliament.

[1] State of the Economy

• Economic growth: Indian economy estimated to grow by 9.2 percent in real terms in 2021-22 (as per first advanced estimates) subsequent to a contraction of 7.3 percent in 2020-21. 
• GDP growth: GDP projected to grow by 8- 8.5 percent in real terms in 2022-23.  
• Agriculture and allied sectors: In line with the longer term trend, the area sown in the Kharif cycle of 2021-22 was again higher than in the previous year. In contrast to the steady performance of the primary sector, the industrial sector went through a big swing by first contracting by 7 per cent in 2020-21 and then expanding by 11.8 per cent in this financial year.

[2] Fiscal Developments

• Revenue receipts: These have gone up by 67.2 percent (YoY) as against an expected growth of 9.6 percent in the 2021-22 Budget Estimates.
• Gross Tax Revenue: It registered a growth of over 50 percent during April to November, 2021 in YoY terms. 
• Borrowings: With the enhanced borrowings on account of COVID-19, the Central Government debt has gone up from 49.1 percent of GDP in 2019-20 to 59.3 percent of GDP in 2020-21.

[3] External Sectors

• India’s merchandise exports and imports rebounded strongly and surpassed pre-COVID levels during the current financial year.
• Net capital flows: These were higher at US$ 65.6 billion in the first half of 2021-22, on account of continued inflow of foreign investment, revival in net external commercial borrowings, higher banking capital and additional special drawing rights (SDR) allocation.
• India’s external debt: It rose to US $ 593.1 billion at end-September 2021, from US $ 556.8 billion a year earlier, reflecting additional SDR allocation by IMF, coupled with higher commercial borrowings.
• Foreign Exchange Reserves: It touched US $ 633.6 billion in Dec 2021 making India the fourth largest forex reserves holder in the world after China, Japan and Switzerland.

[4] Monetary Management and Financial Intermediation

• Repo was maintained: The liquidity in the system remained in surplus. Repo rate was maintained at 4 per cent in 2021-22.
• GSAP: RBI undertook various measures such as G-Sec Acquisition Programme and Special Long-Term Repo Operations to provide further liquidity.
• NPAs declined: The Gross Non-Performing Advances ratio of Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) declined from 11.2 per cent at the end of 2017-18 to 6.9 per cent at the end of September, 2021.

[5] Prices and Inflation

• Control over food inflation: The decline in retail inflation was led by easing of food inflation. Proactive measures were taken to contain the price rise in pulses and edible oils.
• Supply constraints eased: Effective supply-side management kept prices of most essential commodities under control during the year.
• Fuel price reduction: Reduction in central excise and subsequent cuts in Value Added Tax by most States helped ease petrol and diesel prices.

[6] Sustainable Development and Climate Change

• Sustainable development: India’s overall score on the NITI Aayog SDG India Index and Dashboard improved to 66 in 2020-21 from 60 in 2019-20 and 57 in 2018-19.
• Rise in forest cover: India has the tenth largest forest area in the world. In 2020, India ranked third globally in increasing its forest area during 2010 to 2020. In 2020, the forests covered 24% of India’s total geographical, accounting for 2% of the world’s total forest area.
• Plastic waste management (PWM): In August 2021, the PWM Amendment Rules, 2021, was notified which is aimed at phasing out single use plastic by 2022.
• Extended Producer Responsibility for plastic: Draft rules for plastic packaging was notified.
• Pledge on Net-Zero Emissions: The PM participated at COP-26 in Glasgow. He announced ambitious targets to achieve net-zero by 2070.

[7] Agriculture and Food Management

• • Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy: It is being used to promote crop diversification.
  • Allied sector growth: Allied sectors including animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries are steadily emerging to be high growth sectors and major drivers of overall growth in agriculture sector.
  • Food security:  Government has further extended the coverage of food security network through schemes like PM Gareeb Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY).
  • Income Support: Timely release of PM-KISAN Funds.

[8] Industry and Infrastructure:

• Index of Industrial Production (IIP): It grew at 17.4 percent (YoY) during April-November 2021 as compared to -15.3 percent in April-November 2020.
• Extent of road construction per day: This has increased substantially in 2020-21 to 36.5 Kms per day from 28 Kms per day in 2019-20 – a rise of 30.4 percent.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: It gave a major boost to infrastructure-both physical as well as digital.
• In contrast to the steady performance of the primary sector, the industrial sector went through a big swing by first contracting by 7 per cent in 2020-21 and then expanding by 11.8 per cent in this financial year.

[9] Services Sector

• Growth despite pandemic: Overall service Sector GVA is expected to grow by 8.2 percent in 2021-22.
• Opening up of space sector to private players: Major government reform.
• India becomes start-up hub: India has become 3^rd largest start-up ecosystem in the world after US and China.
• Unicorns in India: 44 Indian start-ups have achieved unicorn status in 2021 taking overall tally of unicorns to 83, most of which are in services sector.

[10] Social Infrastructure and Employment

• Universal vaccination: 157.94 crore doses of COVID-19 vaccines administered (as on 16^th January 2022).
• Employment recovery: As per the quarterly Periodic Labour Force Survey (PFLS) data up to March 2021, employment in urban sector affected by pandemic has recovered almost to the pre-pandemic level.
• Expenditure on social services (health, education and others): This expenditure by Centre and States as a proportion of GDP increased from 6.2 % in 2014-15 to 8.6% in 2021-22.
• National Family Health Survey-5:

1. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) came down to 2 in 2019-21 from 2.2 in 2015-16
2. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), under-five mortality rate and institutional births have improved in 2019-21 over year 2015-16
3. Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): Under this, 83 districts have become ‘Har Ghar Jal’ districts.
4. Continuance of MGNREGS: Increased allotment of funds to Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGS) to provide buffer for unorganized labour in rural areas during the pandemic.

[11] Investment: Gross Fixed Capital Formation

• Statistically it measures the value of acquisitions of new or existing fixed assets by the business sector, governments and “pure” households (excluding their unincorporated enterprises) less disposals of fixed assets. GFCF is a component of the expenditure on gross domestic product (GDP), and thus shows something about how much of the new value added in the economy is invested rather than consumed. GFCF is called “gross” because the measure does not make any adjustments to deduct the consumption of fixed capital (depreciation of fixed assets) from the investment figures.
• Investment, as measured by Gross Fixed Capital Formation (GFCF) is expected to see strong growth of 15 per cent in 2021-22 and achieve full recovery of pre-pandemic level. Government’s policy thrust on quickening virtuous cycles of growth via capex and infrastructure spending has increased capital formation in the economy, lifting the investment to GDP ratio to about 29.6 per cent in 2021-22, the highest in seven years.
  BARBELL STRATEGY, SAFETY NETS & AGILE RESPONSE:
• “Barbell Strategy”: It combined a bouquet of safety-nets to cushion the impact on vulnerable sections of society/business, with a flexible policy response based on a Bayesian updating of information. This is a common strategy used in financial markets to deal with extreme uncertainty.
• The Agile approach is a well-established intellectual framework that is increasingly used in fields like project management and technology development. In an uncertain environment, the Agile framework responds by assessing outcomes in short iterations and constantly adjusting incrementally.
• The Waterfall approach entails a detailed, initial assessment of the problem followed by a rigid up-front plan for implementation. This methodology works on the premise that all requirements can be understood at the beginning and therefore pre-commits to a certain path of action. This is the thinking reflected in five-year economic plans, and rigid urban master-plans.

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13th Apr 2022

The monsoonal rainfall in India is concentrated only in four months and more than 50% of the net sown area is rainfed only. Irrigation is thus essential to overcome spatial and temporal variation of rainfall.

Archaeological and historical records show that from ancient times we have been constructing sophisticated hydraulic structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of our river basins. Before we look at these methods of irrigation in detail, let’s have a look at some of the hydraulic structures used in ancient India!

Some Hydraulic Structures used in Ancient India:

• In the first century BC, Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, dams, lakes and irrigation systems were extensively built.
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found in Kalinga (Orissa), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur (Maharashtra), etc.
• In the eleventh century, Bhopal Lake, one of the largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
• In the 14^th century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying water to the Siri Fort Area.

Coming back to irrigation in the present day India, let’s look at some important facts and figures before we move forward:

Some important facts and figures:

• The net irrigated area = 66.1 million hectares.
• Total/Gross Irrigated Area = 92.6 million hectares.
• Irrigation Intensity in India = (Gross Irrigated Area ÷Gross Sown Area) * 100

= (92.6 ÷ 194.4) *100

= 47.6%

More than 50% of the country’s cropped area depends exclusively on rainfall, most of which is concentrated in a few months of the year. Even where the annual overall precipitation is high, the available moisture is not adequate to support multiple cropping.

Ultimate Irrigation Potential:

As seen in the above figures, only about 66mha i.e. 47.6% of the net sown area is estimated to be irrigated. There is a need to bring more cropped area under assured irrigation so as to increase agricultural productivity and production.

The total ultimate irrigation potential of the country has been estimated as 140mha, with about 76 mha from surface water sources and about 64mha from groundwater sources.

Irrigation – Sources and Methods

The main sources of irrigation in India are:

1. Canals
2. Wells (and tubewells)
3. Tanks

The relative importance of these has been changing from time to time. Let’s look at these in detail:

1. Canal Irrigation:

• A canal is an artificial watercourse constructed for water supply and irrigation.

• There are two types of canals:
  1. Inundation Canals – These are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs etc at their head. Such canals are useful only during the rainy season
  2. Perennial Canals – These are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals at present in India are perennial.
• Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and an extensive command area. Therefore the main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plains.
• The canals are practically absent from the peninsular plateau region because of rocky terrain. However, the coastal and the delta regions in South India have some canals for irrigation.

 

• The percentage of canal irrigation area to total irrigated area in the country has fallen from about 40% in 1950-51 to less than 25% at present.
• The states UP, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Bihar account for about 60% of the canal irrigated area in the country.
• Merits of canal irrigation:
  1. Perennial Source
  2. Provides safety from droughts
  3. Brings fertile sediments to the fields
  4. Economical to serve a large area

• Demerits:
  1. Canal water soaks into the ground and leads to water logging, increases salinization, and leads to marshy conditions leading to malaria and flooding
  2. Wastage of water.

2. Wells (and Tube Wells)

• A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. An ordinary well is about 3-5 metres deep but deeper wells up to 15 metres are also dug.
• This method of irrigation has been used in India from time immemorial. Various methods are used to lift the ground water from the well. Some of the widely used methods are the persian wheel, reht, charas or mot, and dhinghly (lever) etc.
• A tube well is a deeper well (generally over 15 metres deep) from which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor or a diesel engine.

 

• Well irrigation is gradually giving way to energized tube wells. But there are many wells still in use where electricity is not available or the farmers are too poor t0 afford diesel oil.
• This method of irrigation is popular in those areas where sufficient sweet ground water is available.
• It is particularly suitable in areas with permeable rock structure which allows accumulation of ground water through percolation. Therefore wells are seen more in areas with alluvial soil, regur soil, etc. and less seen in rocky terrain or mountainous regions.
• These areas include a large part of the great northern plains, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the Tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan trap and crystalline rocks and the sedimentary zones of the peninsula
• However, the greater part of peninsular India is not suitable for well irrigation due to rocky structure, uneven surface and lack of underground water.
• Large dry tracts of Rajasthan, the adjoining parts of Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat and some parts of Up have brackish ground water which is not fit for irrigation and human consumption and hence unsuitable for well irrigation
• At present irrigation from wells and tubewells accounts for more than 60% of the net irrigated area in the country.
• UP has the largest area under well irrigation which accounts for 28% of the well irrigated area of the country. U.P., Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh account for about three-fourths of the total well-irrigated area

 

• Merits of well irrigation
  • Simplest
  • Cheapest
  • Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises. Canal irrigation, on the other hand, is controlled by other agencies and cannot be used at will.
  • Some ground water salts are useful for crops
  • Does not lead to salinization and flooding problems
  • There is a limit to the extent of canal irrigation beyond the tail end of the canal while a well can be dug at any convenient place.
• Demerits
  • Only limited area can be irrigated. Normally, a well can irrigate 1 to 8 hectares of land.
  • Not suitable for dry regions
  • Overuse may lead to lowering of water table

3. Tank irrigation

• A tank is a reservoir for irrigation, a small lake or pool made by damming the valley of a stream to retain the monsoon rain for later use.

 

• It accounts for approximately 3% of the net irrigated area in India.
• Tank Irrigation is popular in the peninsular plateau area where Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are the leading states.
• Andhra Pradesh has the largest area (29%) of tank irrigation in India followed by Tamil nadu (23%).

 

• It is practised mainly in the peninsular region due to the following reasons:
  • The undulating relief and hard rocks make it difficult to dig canals and wells
  • There is little percolation of water due to hard rock structure and ground water is not available in large quantities.
  • Most of the rivers are seasonal; there are many streams which become torrential during the rainy season – so the only way to use this water is to impound it by constructing bunds and building tanks. Also, it is easy to collect rainwater in natural or artificial pits because of impermeable rocks.
  • Scattered nature of agricultural fields
• Merits
  • Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve cost for their construction
  • Independent source for an individual farmer or a small group of farmers
  • longer life span
  • can be used for fishing also
• Demerits
  • Depends on rain and these tanks may dry up during the dry season
  • Silting of their beds
  • Require large areas
  • Evaporation losses
  • Sometimes there might be a need to lift the water to take it to the field

Irrigation water is generally applied to crops by:

• Flooding on the field surface
• Applying beneath the soil surface
• Spraying under pressure
• Applying in drops in the crop root zone

The application method must ensure a uniform distribution of water along the cropped field as well as in the root zone of the crop with high application efficiency. The ratio of water stored in the root zone to that delivered to the field should be maximum. There should be minimum or no wastage of water either through surface run-off or deep percolation below the root zone of a crop.

Several water application methods are practised to suit different soil types, water supply and its quantity, the topography of the land, crops to be irrigated and costs.

Surface Application Methods:

• In this method, water is applied to the crop by flooding it on the soil surface.
• This method requires proper land grading for the flow of water over the land surface.
• More than 95% of the irrigated area in India is under surface irrigation.
• Merits:
  • It is simple in layout and operation.
  • The amount of manual labour required is minimum.
  • It does not obstruct the use of machinery for land preparation, cultivation, harvesting, etc.
• Demerits:
  • The overall irrigation efficiency is low. The worldwide average irrigation in canal command areas shows an overall efficiency of as low as 28%.
  • It may result in water=logging and soil salinization besides the huge amount of water losses.
• Surface Irrigation methods may be broadly classified as:
  • Border Method:
    • Borders are formed by dividing the field into a number of strips which are separated by ridges.
    • The strips are generally levelled along the width but may or may not have slope along the length.
    • An irrigation channel runs along the upper end of the borders.
    • The water is diverted from the channel into the strips. The water flows slowly towards the lower end, wetting the soil as it advances. Extra water is generally removed from the strip by means of a collecting drain. It is provided at the other end.
    • This method is suitable in the fields where the soil is sufficiently capable of absorbing the water.
    • Source
  • Furrow Method:
    • Furrow irrigation is adaptable to a great variation in slope, crops and topography.
    • When the crops are grown and planted in rows this method is the best suited. In this method, unlike flooding, only a part of the field is wetted. The area wetted varies from 1/2 to 1/5 of total area over which crops are grown.
    • Close growing crops, on slopes and soils that develop crust after being wet, may be irrigated with small furrows which are called corrugations or rills.
    • Source

    • 

      Source

    • The main design parameters of furrows are
      • Longitudinal slope
      • Inflow stream design
      • Furrow spacing:
        • Furrow spacing should be such that the lateral water movement of the moisture wets the ridges by the time irrigation is complete. The lateral movement from the furrows depends on the soil type.
        • Furrow spacing is determined by agronomic requirements of row-to-row spacing and machinery to be used for planting and cultivation.
        • Furrow length: Longer furrows = more percolation and less run-off
      • Benefits of this method:
        • In this method plants in their early tender age are not damaged by the flow of water.
        • The land between the rows of plants is utilised to construct furrows, therefore useful irrigable land is not wasted.
        • As the area wetted is just 1/2 to 1/5 of the cropped area of the field, puddling and crusting of the soil is minimum.

• • •  
    • Check basin:
      • It consists of running water into relatively level plots surrounded by small ridges.
      • The length of the plot is generally less than 3 times the width.
      • The main and lateral channels irrigate The main channel is aligned along the upper end of the field and checks are made on the either side of the lateral channels.

      • 

        Source

      • 

        Source

      • The check basins are especially suitable for heavy soils with low infiltration rate or highly permeable sandy soils.
      • The key to attaining high irrigation efficiency in the design of the check basin is to spread water over the entire basin as rapidly as possible.
      • Therefore, the use of large inflow stream reduces water spread time over the basin.

Sprinkler and Micro-Sprinkler Application:

• Sprinklers:
  • This system sprinkles water in a manner similar to rainfall so that run-off and deep percolation losses are avoided and the uniformity of application is quite high.
  • The system consists of sprinkler heads or nozzles, which are mounted on risers in lateral lines taken from the main line, which is further connected to a pumping unit.

  • 

     

    

    Source

  • This system of irrigation is suitable when:
    • The soil is too porous for good distribution by surface irrigation.
    • The fields have an uneven surface.
    • The soil is easily erodable.
    • The water supply is just sufficient for crop growth.
  • Merits:
    • Sprinklers can be used on all soil types of any topography.
    • It entails increased irrigation frequency which has a positive effect on crop yield.
    • In this method, a water saving of 30% to 50% is reported in comparison to the surface method of irrigation
    • Thus by introducing sprinklers, an additional area ~ up to 50% can be brought under irrigation besides increased crop yields
    • The overall efficiency of the system is above 80% and no land is wasted on making bunds and channels, and about 40-50% of saving in labour as compared to surface irrigation.
    • Only 2 to 5% water is lost through evaporation.
  • Demerits:
    • Expensive
    • Requires continuous maintenance and skill for installation and operation
    • The high energy requirement for operation as sprinklers operate at water pressure ranging from 1 to 10 kg/sq cm.
    • Wind interferes with the distribution pattern. It reduces the spreading rate and in turn the efficiency. Under high temperatures and strong winds heavy evaporation loss takes place thereby offsetting the saving in water.
  • Micro-sprinklers:
    • It sprinkles around the root zone with small sprinklers that work under low pressure.
    • In this method, water is applied only to the root zone area unlike to the entire field as in the case of sprinkler irrigation method.
    • This method is highly suitable for orchard crops and vegetable crops.

Drip Application

• In this method, the application of water is precise but slow as discrete drops, continuous drops, tiny streams or miniature sprays through mechanical devices, called emitters or applicators located at selected points along water delivery lines.
• This is useful in areas with water scarcity and salt problems.
• Drip irrigation system consists of main pipe, sub-mains, lateral valves, drippers or emitters, a riser valve, vacuum breakers, pressure gauges, water metres, filters, fertiliser tanks etc.
• These are designed to supply water at desired rates (1 to 10 litres/hour) directly to the soil.
• Low pressures ranging from 0.35 to kg/sq cm are sufficient for drip system

• 

  Source

• Merits:
  • Water saving
  • Enhanced plant growth and yield
  • Saving of labour and energy
  • More suited to poor soils
  • Controls weed growth
  • Easy operations
  • Fertilisers or other chemical amendments can be efficiently applied to individual or separate plants using drip irrigation.
  • Flexibility in operation
  • No soil erosion
  • Requires less land preparation
  • Minimum disease and pest problems
  • This method has been found to be of great value in reclaiming and developing desert and arid areas.
• Demerits:
  • Expensive
  • Technical Limitations
  • Requirement of high skills for design, installation and operation

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12th Apr, 2022

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11th Apr 2022

NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

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08th Apr, 2022

 

 

Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings

• Colonial land revenue settlements, heavy burden of new taxes, eviction of peasants from their lands, and encroachments on tribal lands.
• Exploitation in rural society and growth of intermediary revenue collectors, tenants and moneylenders.
• Expansion of revenue administration over tribal lands leading to their loss of hold over agricultural and forest land.
• Promotion of British manufactured goods, heavy duties on Indian industries, especially export duties, leading to devastation of Indian handloom and handicraft industries.

Important Civil Uprisings

(1) Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)

• Cause: The disastrous famine of 1770 and the harsh economic order of the British and the restrictions imposed on the pilgrims visiting the holy places.
• Sanyasis were joined by a large number of dispossessed small zamindars, disbanded soldiers and rural poor. They raided Company factories and the treasuries, and fought the Company’s forces.
• Curtailed by: Warren Hastings
• Also referred to as the Fakir Rebellion.
• Important leaders: Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak and Debi Chaudhurani
• Anandamath, a semi-historical novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, is based on the Sanyasi Revolt.

(2) Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74)

• Cause: Introduction of new land revenue system by the English in 1772.
• The zamindars of Midnapore sided with the ryots in case of conflict between the ryots and the English revenue collecting officials.
• Important leaders: Damodar Singh and Jagannath Dhal.

(3) Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99)

• It was a potent challenge to the authority of Ahom kings of Assam.
• The Moamarias were low-caste peasants who followed the teachings of Aniruddhadeva (1553-1624).
• To crush these revolts, the Ahom ruler had to request for British help. The revolt weakened kingdom and it fell to a Burmese invasion and finally came under British rule.

(4) Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)

• In 1758, a treaty was made between the English and Ananda Gajapatiraju, the ruler of Vizianagaram, to jointly oust the French from the Northern Circars. In this mission they were successful.
• English refused to honour the terms of the treaty. Anand Raju died before he could seriously tackle the English.
• The East India Company demanded a tribute of three lakh rupees from Vizayaramaraju and asked him to disband his troops. This angered the raja as there were no dues to be paid to the Company.
• The raja supported by his subjects rose up in revolt. The raja died in a battle at Padmanabham.

(5) Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797; 1800-05)

• Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, popularly known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala) or ‘Pyche raja’, was the de facto head of Kottayam (Cotiote) in Malabar region.
• Cause: The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92), extended English paramountcy over Kottayam in violation of an earlier agreement of 1790 which had recognized the independence of Kottayam.

(6) Poligars’(palayakkarargal) Revolt/ (1795-1805)

• The Poligars of Dindigal and Malabar rose up against the oppressive land revenue system under the British during 1801-06.
• In September 1799, in the first Polygar War, the poligars of Tirunelveli District rose up in open rebellion.
• Kattabomma Nayak of Panchalamkurichi was considered as the main leader of the rebellion. Though he managed to escape initially, he was later captured in Pudukottai, and publicly hanged in front of other Polygars as a warning.
• The Second Polygar war of 1800-01, given the magnitude of participation, is also known as the ‘South Indian Rebellion’.
• The suppression was followed by signing of the Carnatic Treaty on July 31, 1801, whereby the British assumed direct control over Tamil Nadu.

(7) Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809)

• The East India Company’s harsh conditions imposed on the state of Travancore, after both of them agreed to a subsidiary alliance arrangement under Wellesley in 1805, caused deep resentment in the region.
• Prime Minister Velu Thampi rise against the Company and assisted by the Nair troops. Velu Thampi addressed a gathering in Kundara and was later known as the ‘Kundara Proclamation’.
• The Maharaja of Travancore had not wholly supported the rebellion and defected to the side of the Company. Velu Thampi killed himself to avoid capture. The rebellion petered out.

(8) Kutch or Cutch Rebellion (1816-1832)

• There was a treaty between the British and Maharaja Bharamal II of Kutch in 1816, by which power was vested in the throne.
• The British interfered in the internal feuds of the Kutch and, in 1819, Raja Bharmal II raised Arab and African troops with the firm intention of removing the British from his territory.
• A British resident governed the areas as the de facto ruler with the help of a regency council.

(9) Rising at Bareilly (1816)

• Immediate cause: The imposition of the police tax which aroused the burning indignation of the citizens.
• Several armed Muslims from Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur and Rampur rose in rebellion for the defense of the faith and the Mufti.

(10) Upsurge in Hathras (1817)

• Cause: Progressive increase in high revenues, talukdar Dayaram constantly failed to pay arrears and even committed many acts of hostility by giving harbour to government fugitives.
• So, the Company with a large army attacked Hathras in February 1817.
• Rebels involved: Bhagwant Singh, Raja of Mursan

(11) Paika Rebellion (1817)

• The Paiks of Odisha were the traditional landed militia and enjoyed rent free land tenures for their military service and policing functions on a hereditary basis.
• Cause: British conquest of Odisha in 1803, and the dethronement of the Raja of Khurda had greatly reduced the power and prestige of the Paiks. Further, the extortionist land revenue policy of the Company caused resentment among zamindars and peasants.
• Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar had been the military chief of the forces of the Raja of Khurda. In 1814, Jagabandhu’s ancestral estate of Killa Rorang was taken over by the Company, reducing him to penury.
• The spark was lighted by the arrival of a body of Khonds into the Khurda territory in March 1817.
• With active support of Mukunda Deva, the last Raja of Khurda, and other zamindars of the region, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar led a sundry army of Paikas forcing the East India Company forces to retreat for a time.
• The rebellion came to be known as the Paika Bidroh (rebellion). The rebellion was brutally repressed by 1818. In 1825 Jagabandhu surrendered under negotiated terms.
• The Paik Rebellion succeeded in getting large remissions of arrears, reductions in assessments, suspension of the sale of the estates of defaulters at discretion, a new settlement on fixed tenures and other adjuncts of liberal governance.

(12) Ahom Revolt (1828)

• Cause: Defying on the pledge to withdraw from Assam after the First Burma War (1824-26), the British attempted to incorporate the Ahoms’ territories in the Company’s dominion. This sparked off a rebellion in 1828 under the leadership of Gomdhar Konwar, an Ahom prince along with compatriots.
• Finally, the Company decided to follow a conciliatory policy and handed over Upper Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra and part of the kingdom was restored to the Assamese king.

(13) Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)

• Cause: The government’s step to raise the salt duty from 50 paise to one rupee.
• The government withdrew the additional salt levy and its measure to introduce Bengal Standard Weights and Measures in face of people’s determined bid to resort to boycott and passive resistance.

(14) Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts

• The Gadkaris were a hereditary military class which was garrisoned in the Maratha forts.
• These garrisons were disbanded during an administrative reorganization in Kolhapur state after 1844. The Gadkaris rose in revolt and occupied the Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts.
• Similarly, the simmering discontent caused a revolt in Savantvadi areas. A number of Sawantwadi rebels were tried for treason and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.
• Ultimately, after the imposition of martial law and meting out brutal punishment to the rebels, the order could be restored in Sawantwadi region.to bring the region under control.

(15) Wahabi Movement

• It was essentially an Islamic revivalist movement founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings of Abdul Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
• Syed Ahmed condemned the western influence on Islam and advocated a return to pure Islam and society. Syed Ahmed was acclaimed as the desired leader (Imam).
• A countrywide organization with an elaborate secret code for its working under spiritual vice-regents (Khalifas) was set up, and Sithana in the north-western tribal belt was chosen as a base for operations.
• Since Dar-ul-Harb (territory of War or Chaos) was to be converted into Darul-Islam (the land of Islam), a jihad was declared against the Sikh kingdom of Punjab.
• After the defeat of the Sikh ruler and incorporation of Punjab into the East India Company’s dominion in 1849, the English dominion in India became the sole target of the Wahabis’ attacks.
• The Wahabis played an important role in spreading anti-British sentiments. A series of military operations by the British in the 1860s weakened the Wahabi resistance.

(16) Kuka Movement

• Founded in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal (also called Sian Saheb) in western Punjab. A major leader of the movement after him was Baba Ram Singh (founded the Namdhari Sikh sect).
• Its basic tenets were abolition of caste and similar discriminations among Sikhs, discouraging the consumption of meat and alcohol and drugs, permission for intermarriages, widow remarriage, and encouraging women to step out of seclusion.
• On the political side, the Kukas wanted to remove the British and restore Sikh rule over Punjab; they advocated wearing hand-woven clothes and boycott of English laws and education and products.
• So, the concepts of Swadeshi and non-cooperation were propagated by the Kukas, much before they became part of the Indian national movement in the early twentieth century.
• As the movement gained in popularity, the British took several steps to crush it in the period between 1863 and 1872. In 1872, Ram Singh was deported to Rangoon.

Peasant Movements

(1) Narkelberia Uprising

• Mir Nithar Ali (1782-1831) or Titu Mir inspired the Muslim tenants in West Bengal to rise against landlords, mainly Hindu, who imposed a beard-tax on the Faraizis, and British indigo planters.
• Often considered the first armed peasant uprising against the British, this revolt soon took on a religious hue. The revolt later merged into the Wahabi movement.

(2) The Pagal Panthis

• The Pagal Panthi, a semi-religious group mainly constituting the Hajong and Garo tribes was founded by Karam Shah.
• But the tribal peasants organized themselves under Karam Shah’s son, Tipu, to fight the oppression of the zamindars.
• They refused to pay rent above a certain limit and attacked the houses of zamindars. The government introduced an equitable arrangement to protect these peasants, but the movement was violently suppressed.

(3) Faraizi Revolt

• The Faraizis were the followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariat-Allah of Faridpur in Eastern Bengal. They advocated radical religious, social and political changes.
• Shariat-Allah son of Dadu Mian (1819-60) organized his followers with an aim to expel the English intruders from Bengal. The sect also supported the cause of the tenants against the zamindars.
• Most of the Faraizis joined the Wahabi ranks.

(4) Moplah Uprisings

• Cause: Hike in revenue demand and reduction of field size, coupled with the oppression of officials, resulted in widespread peasant unrest among the Moplahs of Malabar.
• The second Moplah uprising occurred after the Moplahs came to be organised by the Congress and the Khilafat supporters during the Non-cooperation Movement.

Tribal Revolts

Causes for Tribal Revolts

• The land settlements of the British affected the joint ownership tradition
• As agriculture was extended in a settled form by the Company government, the tribals lost their land, Shifting cultivation in forests was curbed and this added to the tribals’ problems.
• Exploitation by the police, traders and money-lenders.
• Christian missionaries came to these regions and their efforts interfered with the traditional customs of the tribals. Some general laws were also abhorred for their intrusive nature.

Characteristics of Tribal Revolts

• Tribal identity or ethnic ties lay behind the solidarity shown by these groups.
• The resentment against the imposition of laws by the ‘foreign government’ that was seen as an effort at destroying the tribals’ traditional socioeconomic framework.
• Many uprisings were led by messiah-like figures who encouraged their people to revolt.
• The tribal uprisings were doomed from the beginning, given the outdated arms.

(1) Pahariyas’ Rebellion

• The British expansion on their territory led to an uprising by the martial Pahariyas of the Raj Mahal Hills in 1778.
• The British were forced to usher in peace by declaring their territory as damni-kol area.

(2) Chuar Uprising

• Cause: Famine, enhanced land revenue demands and economic distress goaded the Chuar aboriginal tribesmen of the Jungle Mahal of Midnapore district and Bankura district (in Bengal) to take up arms.
• The most significant uprising was under Durjan (or Durjol) Singh in 1798. Other leaders were Madhab Singh, Raja Mohan Singh.
• The uprising lasted from 1766 to 1772 and then, again surfaced between 1795 and 1816.

(3) Kol Mutiny (1831)

• Cause: Large-scale transfers of land from Kol headmen to outsiders like Hindu, Sikh and Muslim farmers and money-lenders who were oppressive and demanded heavy taxes. Besides, the British judicial and revenue policies badly affected the traditional social conditions of the Kols (inhabitants of Chhotanagpur).
• The Kols resented this and in 1831, under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat, the Kol rebels killed or burnt about a thousand outsiders. Only after large-scale military operations could order be restored.

(4) Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)

• The Raja of Parahat organized his Ho tribals to revolt against the occupation of Singhbhum. The revolt continued till 1827 when the Ho tribals were forced to submit.
• However, later in 1831, they again organized a rebellion, joined by the Mundas of Chotanagpur, to protest against the newly introduced farming revenue policy and the entry of Bengalis into their region.
• Though the revolt was extinguished in 1832, the Ho operations continued till 1837.

(5) Santhal Rebellion

• Cause: The Santhals of Rajmahal Hills resented the oppression by revenue officials, police, money-lenders, landlords—in general, by the “outsiders’ (whom they called diku).
• The Santhals under Sido and Kanhu rose up against their oppressors, declared the end of the Company’s rule and asserted themselves independent in 1854.
• It was only in 1856 after extensive military operations that the situation was brought under control. Sido died in 1855, while Kanhu was arrested in 1866.
• A separate district of Santhal Parganas was created by the Government to pacify the Santhals.

(6) Khond Uprising

• The Khonds lived in vast hill tracts stretching from Tamil Nadu to Bengal, covering central provinces, and in virtual independence due to the inaccessible mountainous terrain.
• Their uprisings from 1837 to 1856 were directed against the British, in which the tribals of Ghumsar, china-ki-medi, Kalahandi and Patna actively participated.
• The movement was led by Chakra Bisoi in the name of the young Raja.
• The main issue was the attempt by the government to suppress human sacrifice (Mariah), the introduction of new taxes by the British and the influx of Zamindars and money-lenders.
• The British formed a Maria agency, against which the Khonds fought with Tangi, a king of battle-axe, bows-arrows and even swords.
• Latter Savaras and some local militia clans also joined in, led by Radha Krishna Dand Sena. Chakra Bisoi disappeared in 1855 after which the movement petered out.

(7) Early Munda Uprising (1789-1832)

• In the period of 1789-1832, the Munda rose up in rebellion seven times against the landlords, dikhus, money-lenders and the British, who instead of protesting them sided with the oppressors.
• In the post-1857 period with a hope of a better future, many Mundas turned to the Evangelical Lutheran mission, which was overseeing mission work in Chhotanagpur.
• However, many apostates became more militant and broke away, spearheading the cause of seeking redressal of their grievances once they realized that the missionaries could not provide the solution to them.
• Their movement identified as ‘sardariladai’ or ‘war of the leaders’ was fought with the aim of expelling dikhus; and restoration of the Munda domination over their homeland.
• The tribal chiefs rose up against the erosion of Khuntkatti System or Joint tenures.
• While it failed it did not peter out but remained dormant and in need of a charismatic leader. It was given a new life by Birsa Munda in 1899.

(8) Bhils and Kolis Uprisings

• Cause: The Bhils were concentrated in the hill ranges of Khandesh in the previous Maratha territory. The British occupation in 1818 brought in the outsiders and accompanying dislocations in their community life.
• A general Bhil insurrection in 1817-19 was crushed by the British Military forces and though some conciliatory measures were taken to pacify them, they again revolted under the leadership of Seva Ram in 1825 and the situation remained unsettled until 1831 when the Ramosi Leader Umaji Raje of Purandhar was finally captured and executed.
• Minor revolts again took place in 1836 and 1846 as well.
• The Bhils’ local rivals for power, the Kolis of Ahmednagar district, also challenged the British in 1829 but were quickly subdued by a large army contingent.
• The seeds of rebellion, however, persisted, to erupt again in 1844-46, when a local Koli leader successfully defied the British government for two years.

(9) Ramosi Risings

• The Ramosis, the hill tribes of the Western Ghats, had not reconciled to British rule and the British pattern of administration.
• They rose under Chittur Singh in 1822 and plundered the country around Satara.

(10) Khasi Uprising

• The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and the Singphos organized themselves under Tirath Singh to drive away the strangers from the Brahmaputra Valley.
• The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area.

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7th Apr 2022

Government Bodies Related To Environment

Central Pollution Control Board

Established: It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

Objective: To provide technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Key Functions:

• Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
• Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Coordinate the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them
• Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their prevention, control or abatement
• Plan and organise training of persons engaged in the programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Organise through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
• Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
• Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devices, stacks and ducts;
• Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution and their prevention and control
• Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Governments concerned, the standards for stream or well, and lay down standards for the quality of air.
• Perform such other functions as may be prescribed by the Government of India.

National Biodiversity Authority

Established When: It is a statutory autonomous body under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India established in 2003, after India signed Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992

Headquarter: Chennai

The objective of the body: Implementation of Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Key Functions:

It acts as a facilitating, regulating and advisory body to the Government of India “on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.”

Additionally, it advises State Governments in identifying the areas of biodiversity importance (biodiversity hotspots) as heritage sites.

National Tiger conservation authority

Established: It was established in December 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force, constituted by the Prime Minister of India for reorganised management of Project Tiger and the many Tiger Reserves in India.

Headquarter: Delhi

Objective:

• Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives become legal.
• Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing a basis for MoU with States within our federal structure.
• Providing for oversight by Parliament.
• Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.

Key Functions:

• to approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government under sub-section (3) of section 38V of this Act
• evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically unsustainable land use such as mining, industry and other projects within the tiger reserves;
• provide for management focus and measures for addressing conflicts of  men and wild animal and to emphasize on co-existence in forest areas outside the National Parks, sanctuaries or tiger reserve, in the working plan code
• provide information on protection measures including future conservation plan, estimation of population of tiger and its natural prey species, the status of habitats, disease surveillance, mortality survey, patrolling, reports on untoward happenings and such other management aspects as it may deem fit including future plan conservation
• ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal support for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan
• facilitate ongoing capacity building programme for skill development of officers and staff of tiger reserves.

Animal Welfare Board of India

Established When: It was established in 1962 under Section 4 of The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act,1960.

Headquarter: Ballabhgarh

Objective: To advise Government on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes animal welfare in the country.

Key Functions:

• Recognition of Animal Welfare Organisations: The Board oversees Animal Welfare Organisations (AWOs) by granting recognition to them if they meet its guidelines. The organisation must submit paperwork; agree to nominate a representative of the Animal Welfare Board of India on its Executive Committee, and to submit to regular inspections. After meeting the requirements and inspection, the organisation is considered for grant of recognition.
• The AWBI also appoints key people to the positions of (Hon) Animal Welfare Officers, who serve as the key point of contact between the people, the government and law enforcement agencies.
• Financial assistance: The Board provides financial assistance to recognised Animal Welfare Organisations (AWOs), who submit applications to the Board. Categories of grants include Regular Grant, Cattle Rescue Grant, Provision of Shelter House for looking after the Animals, Animal Birth Control (ABC) Programme, Provision of Ambulance for the animals in distress and Natural Calamity grant.
• Animal welfare laws and Rules: The Board suggests changes to laws and rules about animal welfare issues. In 2011, a new draft Animal Welfare Act was published for comment. Guidance is also offered to organisations and officials such as the police to help them interpret and apply the laws.
• Raising awareness: The Board issues publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues. The Board’s Education Team gives talks on animal welfare subjects, and trains members of the community to be Board Certified Animal Welfare Educators.

Forest Survey of India

Established When:  It is a government organization in India under the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for conducting forest surveys and studies. The organization came into being in, 1981.

Headquarter: Dehradun, Uttarakhand

Objective

The objective of the organization is monitoring periodically the changing situation of land and forest resources and present the data for national planning; conservation and management of environmental preservation and implementation of social forestry projects.

Key Functions

• The Functions of the Forest Survey of India are:
• To prepare State of Forest Report biennially, providing an assessment of the latest forest cover in the country and monitoring changes in these.
• To conduct an inventory in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest tree resources.
• To prepare thematic maps on 1:50,000 scale, using aerial photographs.
• To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation, storage and dissemination of spatial database on forest resources.
• To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of technologies related to resources survey, remote sensing, GIS, etc.
• To strengthen research & development infrastructure in FSI and to conduct research on applied forest survey techniques.
• To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping and inventory.
• To undertake forestry-related special studies/consultancies and custom made training courses for SFD’s and other organizations on a project basis.

Forest Survey of India assesses forest cover of the country every 2 years by digital interpretation of remote sensing satellite data and publishes the results in a biennial report called ‘State of Forest Report'(SFR).

Central Zoo Authority of India

Established: It was established in 1992 and constituted under the Wild Life (Protection) Act.

Headquarter: Delhi

Objective 

The main objective of the authority is to complement the national effort in the conservation of wildlife.

Standards and norms for housing, upkeep, health care and overall management of animals in zoos have been laid down under the Recognition of Zoo Rules, 1992.   

Key Functions

• Since its inception in 1992, the Authority has evaluated 513 zoos, out of which 167 have been recognized and 346 refused recognition.
• The Authority’s role is more of a facilitator than a regulator.  It, therefore, provides technical and financial assistance to such zoos which have the potential to attain the desired standard in animal management. Only such captive facilities which have neither the managerial skills nor the requisite resources are asked to close down.
• Apart from the primary function of the grant of recognition and release of financial assistance, the Central Zoo Authority also regulates the exchange of animals of the endangered category listed under Schedule-I and II of the Wildlife (Protection Act) among zoos.  
• Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos is also approved by the Authority before the requisite clearances under EXIM Policy and the CITES permits are issued by the competent authority.  
• The Authority also coordinates and implements programmes on capacity building of zoo personnel, planned conservation breeding programmes and ex-situ research including biotechnological intervention for the conservation of species for complementing in-situ conservation efforts in the country.

Major UN climate negotiations under UNFCCC- Timeline

1992—

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted and opened for signatures in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit.

154 signatories to the UNFCCC agreed to stabilize “greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.”

The treaty is not legally binding because it sets no mandatory limits on GHG emissions. Instead, the treaty provides for future negotiations to set emissions limits. The first principal revision is the Kyoto Protocol.

1994—

The UNFCCC Treaty entered into force after receiving 50 ratifications.

1997—

KYOTO PROTOCOL

COP 3 was held in Kyoto, Japan. On December 11, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by consensus with more than 150 signatories.

The Protocol included legally binding emissions targets for developed country Parties for the six major GHGs, which are-

• Carbon dioxide.
• Methane.
• Nitrous oxide.
• Hydrofluorocarbons.
• Perfluorocarbons, and
• Sulfur hexafluoride.

Annex of the Kyoto Protocol

• Annex 1 – Industrialised Countries (mainly OECD) plus economies in transition (mainly former soviet block countries) – They would mandatorily reduce GHGs, base year – 1990
• Annex 2 – Subset of Annex 1,  Industrialised Countries (mainly OECD), would also provide finances and technology to non annex countries
• Non annex – not included in annex, all other countries, no binding targets
• Annex A – gases covered under Kyoto <name those 7 gases>
• Annex B – Binding targets for each Annex 1 country i.e Japan will reduce emission by X%, Australia by Y% 

The Protocol offered additional means of meeting targets by way of three market-based mechanisms:

• Emissions trading.
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
• Joint Implementation (JI).

Under the Protocol, industrialized countries’ actual emissions have to be monitored and precise records have to be kept of the trades carried out.

India ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002.

2000—

COP 6 part I was held in The Hague, Netherlands. Negotiations faltered, and parties agreed to meet again.

COP 6part II was held in Bonn, Germany. The consensus was reached on what was called the Bonn Agreements.

All nations except the United States agreed on the mechanisms for implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.

The U.S. participated in observatory status only.

2001—

COP 7 was held in Marrakesh, Morocco. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol were adopted and called the Marrakesh Accords.

The Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) was established to “finance projects relating to: adaptation; technology transfer and capacity building; energy transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management; and economic diversification.”

The Least Developed Countries Fund was also “established to support a work programme to assist Least Developed Country Parties (LDCs) carry out, inter alia [among other things], the preparation and implementation of national adaptation programmes of action (NAPAs).”

2005—

COP 11/CMP 1 were held in Montreal, Canada. This conference was the first to take place after the Kyoto Protocol took force. The annual meeting between the parties (COP) was supplemented by the first annual Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP).

The countries that had ratified the UNFCCC, but not accepted the Kyoto Protocol, had observer status at the latter conference.

The parties addressed issues such as “capacity building, development and transfer of technologies, the adverse effects of climate change on developing and least developed countries, and several financial and budget-related issues, including guidelines to the Global Environment Facility (GEF).” (UNFCCC)

2007—

COP 13/CMP 3 were held in Bali. COP parties agreed to a Bali Action Plan to negotiate GHG mitigation actions after the Kyoto Protocol expires in 2012. The Bali Action Plan did not require binding GHG targets for developing countries.

2009—

June – As part of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, governments met in Bonn, Germany, to begin discussions on draft negotiations that would form the basis of an agreement at Copenhagen.

December – COP 15 was held in Copenhagen, Denmark.

It failed to reach agreement on binding commitments after the Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends in 2012.

During the summit, leaders from the United States, Brazil, China, Indonesia, India and South Africa agreed to what would be called the Copenhagen Accord which recognized the need to limit the global temperature rise to 2°C based on the science of climate change.

While no legally binding commitments were required by the deal, countries were asked to pledge voluntary GHG reduction targets. $100 billion was pledged in climate aid to developing countries.

2012—

COP 18 was held in Doha, Qatar.

Parties agreed to extend the expiring Kyoto Protocol, creating a second commitment phase that would begin on January 1, 2013 and end December 31, 2020. India ratified the second commitment period in 2017.

Parties failed to set a pathway to provide $100 billion per year by 2020 for developing countries to finance climate change adaptation, as agreed upon at COP 15 in Copenhagen.

The concept of “loss and damage” was introduced as developed countries pledged to help developing countries and small island nations pay for the losses and damages from climate change that they are already experiencing.

2013—

COP 19 was held in Warsaw, Poland.

Parties were expected to create a roadmap for the 2015 COP in Paris where a legally binding treaty to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is expected to be finalized (in order to come into effect in 2020).

Differences of opinion on responsibility of GHG emissions between developing and developed countries led to a flexible ruling on the wording and a plan to discuss further at the COP 20 in Peru.

A non-binding agreement was reached among countries to set up a system tackling the “loss and damage” issue, although details of how to set up the mechanism were not discussed.

Concerning climate finance, the United Nations’ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Program, aimed at preserving the world’s forests, was formally adopted.

Little progress was made on developed countries committing to the agreed upon plan of providing $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries.

2015—

PARIS AGREEMENT

COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris.

Aims of the Paris Agreement-

1.Keep the global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial level.

2.Pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

3.Strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

COP 23 – BONN(GERMANY)

First COP to be hosted by a small Island developing nation.
Countries continued to negotiate the finer details of how the agreement will work from 2020 onwards.

COP 24 – KATOWICE(POLLAND)

• Countries settled on most of the tricky elements of the “rulebook” for putting the 2015 Paris agreement into practice.
• This includes how governments will measure, report on and verify their emissions-cutting efforts, a key element because it ensures all countries are held to proper standards and will find it harder to wriggle out of their commitments.
  Read in detail here

COP 26: Glasgow Agreement

What was achieved?
1. Mitigation:

• The Glasgow agreement has emphasised that stronger action in the current decade was most critical to achieving the 1.5-degree target.

2. Adaptation:

• The Glasgow Climate Pact has:

1. Asked the developed countries to at least double the money being provided for adaptation by 2025 from the 2019 levels.
2. Created a two-year work programme to define a global goal on adaptation.

3. Finance: 

• In 2009, developed countries had promised to mobilise at least $100 billion every year from 2020.
• The developed nations have now said that they will arrange this amount of 100 billion annual fund by 2023.

4. Accounting earlier failures:

• The pact has expressed “deep regrets” over the failure of the developed countries to deliver on their $100 billion promise.
• It has asked them to arrange this money urgently and in every year till 2025.

5. Loss and Damage:

• There is no institutional mechanism to compensate nations for the losses, or provide them help in the form of relief and rehabilitation after suffering from climate disasters.
• The loss and damage provision in the Paris Agreement seeks to address that.
• Thanks to a push from many nations, substantive discussions on loss and damage could take place in Glasgow.

6. Carbon Markets:

• The Glasgow Pact has offered some reprieve to the developing nations.
• It has allowed these carbon credits to be used in meeting countries’ first NDC targets
  Read in detail here

NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBURTIONS (NDCs)

• The national pledges by countries to cut emissions are voluntary.
• The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to put forward their best efforts through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the years ahead.
• This includes requirements that all Parties report regularly on their emissions and on their implementation efforts.
• In 2018, Parties will take stock of the collective efforts in relation to progress towards the goal set in the Paris Agreement.
• There will also be a global stock take every 5 years to assess the collective progress towards achieving the purpose of the Agreement and to inform further individual actions by Parties.

Some facts-

• It entered into force in November 2016 after (ratification by 55 countries that account for at least 55% of global emissions) had been met.
• The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century.
• In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement, the parties will also “pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C.”
• The 1.5 °C goal will require zero-emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050, according to some scientists.
• The developed countries reaffirmed the commitment to mobilize $100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020 and agreed to continue mobilizing finance at the level of $100 billion a year until 2025.
• In 2017, United States announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation.
• In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, the earliest possible effective withdrawal date by the United States cannot be before November 2020. Thus, The U.S. will remain a signatory till November 2020.

RATIFICATION TO KIGALI AGREEMENT

The Union Cabinet has given its approval for ratification of the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer for phase down of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by India.

What is Montreal Protocol?

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international agreement made in 1987.
• It was designed to stop the production and import of ozone-depleting substances and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the earth’s ozone layer.
• It sits under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.

What is the Kigali Amendment?

• It is an international agreement to gradually reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
• It is a legally binding agreement designed to create rights and obligations in international law.
• While HFCs do not deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, they have high global warming potential ranging from 12 to 14,000, which has an adverse impact on climate.
  Read in detail here