Author: CD Staff

“Disruption is replacing discussion as the foundation of our legislative functioning”

Context

• The recently concluded monsoon session of the Parliament again witnessed a high level of ruckus from Opposition Members of Parliament leading to the suspension of several of them by the Speaker.
• Also, last month several Opposition leaders criticized the post and powers of the President as ‘Rubber Stamp’ thus dishonoring the highest executive position in the country.
• These incidences point toward the ‘crisis’ that the Opposition is facing in India at several levels. In this article, we will analyze this issue in depth, its implications and possible solutions.

What is Opposition in a democracy?

• Parliamentary democracy is based on the party system of government. It is a government by criticism and exposition and therefore, it has to be governed by two political parties – a party or parties in power and a party or parties in Opposition.
• Opposition is defined as a person or group of people opposing, criticizing, or protesting something, someone, or another group. Political Opposition is different and is defined as ‘the major political party opposed to the party in power and seeking to replace it.

Role of Opposition in a democracy

• Constructive criticism – In the legislature, Opposition Party has the role of Constructive criticism of the government and its policies.

• Check the excesses of Government– The role of the Opposition in the legislature is basically to check the excesses of the ruling or dominant party, and not to be antagonistic.
• Uphold accountability of government– Their main role is to question the government of the day and hold them accountable to the public. This also helps to fix the mistakes of the Ruling Party. This is mainly done through methods like debates and bringing a no-confidence motion.
• Public welfare– The Opposition is equally responsible for upholding the best interests of the people of the country. For example, the demonstrations by the Opposition on roads against fuel price hikes or inflation.
• Safeguarding liberty and right of people– For example, Opposition member Brinda Karat filed the petition in Supreme Court against the demolition drive of Delhi Municipal corporation to protect the right to life of citizens.
• Expression of public opinion– Opposition members put forth the demands of the public and their opinion in Parliament, the highest forum of discussion.

Opposition in India

• Multi-party based– Being a multiply party system democracy, India has several political parties that form Opposition in multiple states and Parliament. For example SP in Uttar Pradesh and Congress in Madhya Pradesh.

• Official recognition– Official Opposition (recognized Opposition party) designates the political party which has secured the second largest number of seats in either upper or lower houses. To get formal recognition in either upper or lower houses, the concerned party must have at least 10% of the total strength of the house.

• 10% rule– A single party has to meet the 10% seat criterion, not an alliance. Many of the Indian state legislatures also follow this 10% rule while the rest of them prefer the single largest Opposition party according to the rules of their respective houses.

Issues with Opposition in India

• Leaderless Opposition– the Opposition today in India is leaderless. There are indeed good political leaders heading major regional political parties but there is no consensus on the name of one person or party as Opposition leader.

• Highly fragmented– Today, the Opposition is divided among several political parties and coalitions holding different ideologies and working styles leading to its fragmentation and thus hampering unity.

• Lacks an Original Agenda– the Opposition today lacks an original agenda or plan to put against the government, but is instead involved in just reacting to government actions rather than putting an alternative choice to the electorate.

• Involved in adverse politics– The opposition sees government as its adversary and remains involved in unnecessary criticism and do not support even good policies. For example, the opposition criticized Gaganyaan Mission, Construction of the New Parliament Building as wasteful expenditure.

• Not being innovative– Opposition parties remain involved in older ideologies of left and right, walk-outs from houses of Parliament and primitive methods like demonstrations and rallies, rather involving in new methods like Facebook live, virtual rallies, podcasts etc. This leads to a disconnect from the youth of the country.

• Playing the role of investigative agencies– where Opposition parties keep hunting for scams and misappropriation of funds in government schemes rather than upholding government accountability.

• Loss of credibility– continuous disruptions in Parliament proceeds, blind Opposition of government and lack of connection to ground level have led to the loss of credibility of the Opposition in the eyes of the electorate.

Issues with the regime

• Indifference attitude of government- towards Opposition leaders and parties. For example, the government did not recognize the leader of Opposition in loksabha for 1.5 years after 2019 elections and still has a vacant deputy speaker post in loksabha which usually goes to the Opposition party.
• Labeling Opposition as Anti-national and roadblock to development– if Opposition asks for details and clarification about government actions.
• Misuse of power– by using institutions like Police, CBI, ED against Opposition leaders. There are allegations against the government of using Pegasus software for snooping on Opposition leaders.
• Lack of pre-legislative discussion- with Opposition parties on legislative bills leads to the sidelining of Opposition in the legislative process and thus poor debates in Parliament.

Consequences of a weak Opposition

• Leads to Politics of enmity– as both government and Opposition see each other as rivals and indulge in ugly politics. Slogans like “Congress mukt Bharat”, “Samajvaad Mukt UP” are a manifestation of such enmity.
• Weakening of democracy– as evident from dropping rankings in several key indices like Democracy index (labeled India a ‘flawed democracy’), V-Dem report (called India ‘Electoral Autocracy’)
• Decline of Parliament– Parliament as an institution is the biggest victim of weak Opposition. The ability of Parliament to seek accountability of the executive has been severely hampered. Productivity of Loksabha in 2021 monsoon was just 22% due to disruption by Opposition. Informed debates have also reduced.

“Debates are rare, informed debates are even rare. Government and Opposition meet as two warring camps in Parliament” – Former Vice President Dr. Hamid Ansari

• Autocracy of government increased- as evident from reducing the number of bills being referred to the Parliamentary committee has reduced from 76 in the 15^th loksabha (2009-14) to 27 in 16^th loksabha(2014-19), and important bills have been passed by simple voice vote.

• Ordinance raj– Continuous disruptions by Opposition in Parliament have led the government to take up the ordinance route very frequently. From 2014 to 2021, the Government promulgated 76 ordinances which are 14 higher than UPA’s 10 years of rule.

• Side-lining of public issues– Finally, in this rivalry, important public issues such as unemployment, inflation, economic distress are side-lined and less essential topics like the arrest of any Opposition political leader takes centre stage in Parliament and leads to disruption of the house by that political party members.

How to improve the situation?

“Without debate, without criticism, no administration and no country can succeed and no republic can survive”   – JF Kennedy

• Stop unnecessary criticism-The Opposition has to complement in the running of the government. Merit-based Opposition to specific government acts is welcome, but opposing for the sake of opposing can only be counterproductive.
• Work at grassroots level– There is an imperative need for the Opposition to develop an ability to read the nation’s pulse by going in between the public and then adopt a constructive approach.
• Develop a new ideology and structure– It is necessary for a ‘New Opposition’ in India to emerge. It must have a centrist ideology that appeals to the majority of the people. It must be supported by a rank-and-file organization, with a decentralized structure.
• Bring its own house in order– It must practice internal democracy to bring up good leaders. And it must have a practical agenda, with good slogans.
• Consensus building– Government should also understand the importance of Opposition and should try to take Opposition together on important issues like national security. Pre-legislative consultations should also be promoted to improve the quality of debates in Parliament.

Good practices related to Opposition in different countries

• Shadow Cabinet system of the UK- The shadow cabinet is made up of senior members of the main Opposition party in Westminster who act as spokespeople for the Opposition in specific policy areas. Shadow ministers are appointed by the leader of the Opposition and generally take roles that mirror the current government. Their job is to scrutinize those they ‘shadow’ in government and develop policies for their party.

• The practice of Opposition day– An Opposition day is a day in a legislature in which an Opposition party sets the agenda for the whole day. Most days the Parliamentary agenda is set by the government; Opposition days allow the smaller parties to choose the subject for debate. It is a regular practice in UK and Canada where 20 days are allotted to the Opposition to set the agenda.

Way forward

• The Opposition must be tolerated because if it is left to the party in power to decide what is healthy and unhealthy criticism, then every criticism of the latter will be treated as unhealthy.
• While the Opposition must be credible and strong, it is for the Opposition to make itself credible and strong. It must feel the pulse of the people.
• Unless it makes itself respectable, it cannot demand any respect. This is the biggest challenge facing the opposition today.

Conclusion

Accommodation and understanding, not division and confrontation, lay at the heart of any Parliamentary democracy. Thus, disruption and confrontation in Parliament must be stopped.

The opposition, as well as government, must come to the table to draw a common working plan for the sake of improving the health of Indian Democracy, fulfilling our commitment to the founding fathers and making the Grand Experiment called ‘India’ a success.

Context

• With the beginning of the monsoon season in June, pictures of floods in several parts of India have started coming up.
• Recently, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Assam have witnessed floods fury. Also, cities like Hyderabad witnessed urban flooding leaving millions of people displaced.
• Thus, the flooding in India topic becomes relevant for the upcoming UPSC Mains examination 2022.

What are floods and their frequency in India?

• A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually meant to be dry. While it may occur along river banks, lakes and sea coasts, river flooding is the most common of all around the world.
• According to National Disaster Management Authority, NDMA, India is highly vulnerable to floods. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (mha), more than 40 mha is flood prone.
• On average every year, 75 lakh hectares of land is affected, 1600 lives are lost and the damage caused to crops, houses and public utilities is Rs.1805 crores due to floods. 

Why floods are becoming a cause of concern?

• Large share in total annual disasters-The Asian Development Bank has estimated that floods are the most devastating among climate-related disasters in India. They account for more than 50 per cent of all climate-related disasters in the country.
• Increasing intensification– According to a study commissioned by the Asian Development Bank, Extreme precipitation and flooding cause large-scale impacts on people, and are further intensified by rapid urbanisation, infrastructure expansion, and large numbers of people residing in informal settlements in destitute conditions
• Causes huge destruction– An analysis by the DTE-CSE Data Centre of the Central Water Commission (CWC) data showed that in the last 65 years (1952-2018, Floods killed 109,412 people in the span. Over 258 million hectares of crops were damaged and 81,187,187 houses were raged. The total economic losses due to crop, house and other property damages came to Rs 4.69 trillion.   
• Increasing financial losses– In November, 2019, the Union Minister of State for Jal Shakti, Ratan Lal Kataria told the Rajya Sabha that India suffered a loss of Rs 95,736 crore in the 2018 floods. This was 2.6 times more than the financial loss due to floods in 2017.

Causes of flooding in India

A) Man-made Reasons:

• Continued settlement in flood-prone areas: Floodplains of several rivers, especially in the northern plains like Kosi, Ghaghra, Gandak, Sarayu etc are flooded every year. Yet, these areas have been settled by people. This has led to recurring losses in the face of floods, especially in the Assam and Bihar plains.
• Encroachment over natural bodies: The destruction of natural wetlands including marshes and lakes has led to the blocking of areas that had earlier served as water sinks. This is the primary reason behind Chennai floods.
• Rapid and unplanned urbanisation: Construction of houses in a haphazard manner without getting plans approved has led to the washing away of several buildings during flash floods due to cloudbursts in the Himalayan region.
• Nature’s destruction: With increasing deforestation especially along coastal areas and river banks, the first line of defence against floods has been removed. This is the reason that cyclone caused floods result in severe destruction along the coasts.

B) Physiological Reasons:

• Heavy precipitation: Heavy rainfall is one of the major reasons for the flood in India. Over natural bank of rivers, the rainfall of about 15 cm or more in a single day exceeds the carrying capacity of rivers causes a flood in that region. Such effect can be seen in the West Coast region of the Western Ghat, Assam and sub-Himalayan West Bengal.
• Rise in river bed: The river bed rises due to large silt and sand gradients carried by the Himalayan Rivers. The deposition of silt enhances the catchment area of rivers which reduces the carrying capacity of rivers.
• The meandering tendency of river-flow: The tendency to meander or change the course within a specific boundary of rivers in the flat terrains also causes a flood in the meandering regions like the lower reaches of the Brahmaputra and Gangetic plains.
• Silting in Delta areas: The deposition of silt on the river-mouths by the sea tides deteriorates the discharging capacity of rivers which causes a flood in that region.
• Earthquake and Landslide: Sometimes it has been found that the river changes its course after natural calamities like earthquake, landslide which causes a flood in the same region.  Such instances can found in the mountain of hilly region states like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand etc.
• Obstruction of free-flow of rivers: Roads, embankments, railway lines, canals etc. obstruct the free flow of rivers leading to floods in the area.
• Cloudburst: Cloud bursts lead to a high amount of rainfall within a short time leading to flash floods. Flash flood generally occurs in the Himalayan region.

Consequences of Floods

• Financial Burden: while some flood-caused damages and losses are covered by insurance, others are not. Damages incurred due to natural disasters are usually not covered by insurance companies. It is important for landlords and property owners to check and enquire with their insurance agents about their plans and coverage for natural disasters. In some cases, state-wise aid is offered by the government to flood-affected people.
• Physical loss: the effects of floods are destructive for the property. Floodwaters can disrupt vegetation by destroying land due to shoreline erosion and soil stripping. Heavy flowing water can damage natural vegetation at its roots. It can contaminate water supplies, damage drainage systems, and farm crops.
• Emotional trauma: experiencing a wide range of emotions, flood-affected people often go through anxiety, fear, sadness, grief, and frustration during and after the disaster. Such conditions are often followed by symptoms like loss of sleep, loss of appetite, and mood swings.

Another cause of concern- Rising Urban Flooding

What are Urban Floods?

• Urban floods stem from a combination of various meteorological and hydrological extremes, such as extreme precipitation and flows in short periods.
• Thus, flooding in urban areas is caused by intense and/or prolonged rainfall, which overwhelms the capacity of the drainage system.
• It increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times.

Causes of urban floods

[A] Natural

• Meteorological Factors: Heavy rainfall, cyclonic storms and thunderstorms cause water to flow quickly through paved urban areas and impound in low lying areas.
• Hydrological Factors: Overbank flow channel networks, the occurrence of high tides impeding the drainage in coastal cities.
• Climate Change: Climate change due to various anthropogenic events has led to extreme weather events.

[B] Anthropological

• Population densities: Population density and proximity to urban centers significantly alter the dynamics and complexity when it comes to urban flooding.
• Unplanned Urbanization: This is the key cause of urban flooding. A major concern is the blocking of natural drainage pathways through construction activity and encroachment on catchment areas, riverbeds and lakebeds.
• Encroachment: Ideally, the natural drains should have been widened to accommodate the higher flows of stormwater. But on the contrary, there have been large-scale encroachments. Habitations started growing over them.
• Drainage System: Stormwater drainage systems in the past were designed for a rainfall intensity of 12 – 20 mm. These capacities have been getting very easily overwhelmed whenever rainfall of higher intensity has been experienced.
• Destruction of lakes: Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water. However, pollution of natural urban water bodies and converting them for development purposes has increased the risk of floods.

Flood management in India

• Federal working- The responsibility of flood management in India is divided between the Union and the State Governments with the Union Ministry of Agriculture being the central agency for coordination with states.
• Sharing of responsibilities: The role of the central government is technical and advisory in nature whereas the states are the actual implementers of the flood plans. Funds are also released by the centre to states in case of heavy flooding in any state.

Why flood management failing in India?

• New flood zones are coming up– such as drier areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and in urban areas especially tier 1 cities like Chennai, Hyderabad. This is leading to the failure of previous flood zoning and estimates.
• Use of obsolete methods– like aerial surveys of flooded areas by PM, CM’s before releasing funds for flood management and use of decades-old flood zoning records.
• Fire fighting approach- the reaction to floods has been rather reactive than proactive. It is only after the flood has occurred that government machinery comes into action.

Possible Solutions to the flooding problem

• Improved flood warning systems: effective flood warning systems can help take timely action during natural calamities and can save lives. Pre-planning can significantly reduce the effects of floods, giving people time to migrate to safer locations and stock up essentials.
• Building flood-resilient housing systems: concreting floors can be very useful during floods. Houses should be water proofed and electric sockets should be placed at higher levels up the walls to reduce the chances of shocks.
• Constructing buildings above flood levels: buildings should be constructed a metre above from the ground to prevent flood damage and evacuation during floods.
• Resilience to Climate change: drastic climate changes have increased the frequency of natural disasters in many parts of the world. Governments should bring about environment-friendly policy level changes and eliminate the ones hazardous to the environment to tackle the problem of global warming.
• Create wetlands and encourage reforestation: creating more and more wetlands can help soak up excessive moisture since wetlands act as sponges. Wooded areas can also slow down heavy water flow, minimizing the effects of floods. Reforesting upstream regions can significantly reduce the effects of flood damage.
• Improve soil conditions: improper soil management, animal hooves, and machinery can make soil compacted. As a result, instead of holding water in and absorbing moisture, the water runs off immediately. Properly drained soil can absorb large amounts of rainwater and can prevent it from flowing into the rivers.
• Installing flood barriers: these are flood gates designed to prevent the area behind the barrier from flooding. They can also be kept around buildings to keep floodwaters outside the boundary created.
• Development of GIS– Geographical Information System (GIS) based National Database for disaster management. GIS is an effective tool for emergency responders to access information in terms of crucial parameters for disaster-affected areas.
• Developing a Federal flood management plan– with responsibilities of union and state clearly defined.
• Creation of 2^nd flood commission– (Rashtriya Barh Aayog, created in 1976) to study the flood situation in India under rising challenges of climate change and propose a national-level flood resilience and management plan.

Some international models of flood management

• The Dutch Model of Flood Management– ‘Live with Water, Built with Nature’ sees cities as ‘waterscape’ and not ‘landscape’ as most of our cities are built along water bodies like river banks or coastal areas. The model proposes nature-based solutions for flood management in cities.
• Yongning River Park model– of china where artificial wetlands are created in and around cities to allow periodic flooding in these parks and act as a buffer for cities and thus preventing flooding. 

Steps taken for flood management in India

• NDMA has released National level flood management guidelines.
• IN-FLOWS flood control systems have been installed in Chennai and Mumbai.
• National River Interlinking Project has been launched to control flooding and also to prevent droughts.
• Flood management And border area development program (FMBAP) has been launched of control of floods in border areas specially Bihar.

NITI Aayog’s Committee Recommendations on Flood Management

NITI Aayog in 2021 had constituted a committee on flood management under the chairmanship of Vice Chairman Rajiv Kumar which has suggested several measures like-

• Priority to non-structural measures: The committee held the view to provide priority to non-structural measures to mitigate the floods and shall go for long term and medium-term structural measures when and where those are unavoidable.
  

“In the majority of the places, less expensive non-structural measures like flood forecasting, flood plain zoning, flood proofing etc should be adopted to accommodate high spat of water,” the report said.

• Better dam management: The report also pitched for the policy to provide flood cushion in the existing dams to accommodate peak time flood so that the tragedy like the Kerala floods doesn’t repeat itself.
• Use of advanced technology: It stressed the use of advanced technology like artificial intelligence, satellites, remote sensing and GIS for flood forecasting and warning systems.
• Creation of a national water model– to feed information that can provide support services by predicting precipitation and forecasting.

Way forward

• Creating a national body: Since flooding has been a recurring phenomenon across multiple states, the need is to create a national-level institution to promote cooperation among states and states and union.
• Developing resilience in people: The rapid transformation in rainfall characteristics and flooding patterns demands building people’s resilience.

• Reconsider projects: Construction projects that impede the movement of water and sediment across the floodplain must be reconsidered.
• Use of technology: At the same time, climate-imposed exigencies demand new paradigms of early-warning and response systems and securing livelihoods and economies.

Conclusion

With growing climate change impacts, flooding in India is also all set to increase in magnitude and intensity. Thus, the need of the hour is to adopt the Sendai framework’s Disaster risk resilience approach in flood management in India.

In doing so, India’s achievements in the successful management of the cyclone crisis in recent years, as recognized by the UN also, can be a torchbearer.

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Context

• The brief visit by the United States House Speaker, Nancy Pelosi, to Taiwan, against stern warnings issued by China, has the potential to increase the already deteriorating relationship between the U.S. and China.
• The move severely undermined China’s perception of sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• For the US, the visit was aimed at expressing that “America’s determination to preserve democracy in Taiwan and in the world remain iron-clad”
• This makes the topic important for the coming Mains Examination for GS-2 paper under international relations and also for Political science and international relations optional.

How did China respond to the visit?

• Increased military exercises around Taiwan: Military exercises around Taiwan have been expanded, with Chinese aircraft intruding more frequently across the informal median line which defines the zone of operations on each side.
• Increased naval presence: Chinese naval ships are cruising within the Taiwan Straits and around the island itself.
• Economic sanctions: have been announced, prohibiting imports of a whole range of foodstuffs from Taiwan.

What is the issue between China and Taiwan?

• Taiwan is an island about 160 km off the coast of south-eastern China, opposite the Chinese cities of Fuzhou, Quanzhou, and Xiamen.
• It was administered by the imperial Qing dynasty, but its control was passed to the Japanese in 1895.
• After the defeat of Japan in World War II, the island passed back into Chinese hands.
• After the communists led by Mao Zedong won the civil war in mainland China, Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the nationalist Kuomintang party, fled to Taiwan in 1949.
• Chiang Kai-shek set up the government of the Republic of China on the island and remained President until 1975.
• Beijing has never recognized the existence of Taiwan as an independent political entity, arguing that it was always a Chinese province under its ‘One China Policy’
• The PRC considers the island as a renegade province awaiting reunification by peaceful means, if possible.
• This has generated strong opposition from the Taiwanese government and people. To protect its sovereignty, Taiwan remains closer to the US, buying weapons from it and thus irking China.
• This has become a major bone of contention between the two.

What is the ‘One China policy?

• It is the diplomatic acknowledgment of China’s position that there is only one Chinese government.
• Under the policy, a country should recognize and have formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan, which China sees as a breakaway province to be reunified with the mainland one day.
• The policy is also a fundamental bedrock of Chinese policy-making and diplomacy.
• However, it is distinct from the One China principle, whereby China insists Taiwan is an inalienable part of one China to be reunified one day.

How did it come about?

• The origin-The policy can be traced back to 1949 and the end of the Chinese civil war.
• The defeated Nationalists, also known as the Kuomintang, retreated to Taiwan and made it their seat of government while the victorious Communists began ruling the mainland as the People’s Republic of China.
• Both sides said they represented all of China.
• Since then China’s ruling Communist Party has threatened to use force if Taiwan ever formally declares independence, but it has also pursued a softer diplomatic track with the island in recent years.
• Taiwan’s government was set up by the Kuomintang, whose party logo is reflected in Taiwan’s flag
• Initially, many governments including the US recognised Taiwan as they shied away from Communist China.
• But the diplomatic winds shifted as China and the United States saw a mutual need to develop relations beginning in the 1970s, with the US and other countries cutting ties with Taipei in favour of Beijing.

US and One-China Principle

• PREVIOUS SITUATION– Officially, the US has subscribed to PRC’s “One China Policy” which means there is only one legitimate Chinese government.

• With the shifting geopolitics of the Cold War, the PRC and the U.S. were forced to come together in the 1970s to counter the growing influence of the USSR.
• This led to the US-China rapprochement demonstrated by the historic visit of then US President Richard Nixon to PRC in 1972.
• The same year, the PRC displaced ROC as the official representative of the Chinese nation at the UN.
• Diplomatic relations with the PRC became possible only if countries abided by its “One China Principle” — recognizing PRC and not the ROC as China.
• CURRENT SITUATION– But now, the US backs Taiwan’s independence, maintains ties with Taipei, and sells weapons to it. The policy saw a shift from Donald Trump’s presidentship.
• Taiwan is entirely dependent on the US for its defence against possible Chinese aggression.
• This is why every spike in military tensions between China and Taiwan injects more hostility into the already strained relationship between Washington and Beijing.

Importance of Taiwan for China

• TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company) is the largest foundry in the world and holds around 65 percent of the global production of chips.
• Any potential conflict with China would completely disrupt the entire supply chain of TSMC and labor availability and could cause a major shortage of electronic chips.
• Additionally, China controls five percent of the global production of chips, which could also be affected.
• This could further impact the already existing supply-demand gap for electronic components.

Importance of Taiwan for the US

• Strategic importance– After Japan, Taiwan is the geographically closest friendly territory around China for US in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Economic importance– US-Taiwan have a bilateral trade of $105 billion with US high dependence on Taiwanese semiconductor chips.
• Gaining lost credibility– the current crisis is about re-establishing steadily diminishing American credibility in the eyes of friend and foes through Taiwan.

Importance of Taiwan for the world

• Leading semiconductor manufacturer- Taiwan is the world’s leading producer of semiconductors and other electronic components. The Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) has more than 55 per cent of the global market share.
• It might be more accurate to say that “semiconductors are the new oil” and their production is increasingly dominated by Taiwan and the TMSC.

Impact of the crisis on US-China relations

• Cancellation of 3 key military dialogues- the theatre command meet, defence policy coordination talks and the talks under the military maritime consultative agreement.
• Further degradation of ties– the crisis would lead to further degradation of bilateral ties two super powers of the world which will also lead to spilling of consequences to other regions, countries and sectors.

India Taiwan relations

• 25^th year– India and Taiwan are celebrating 25 years of their partnership.
• Mutual efforts– efforts between Delhi and Taipei have enabled a range of bilateral agreements covering agriculture, investment, customs cooperation, civil aviation, industrial cooperation and other areas.
• Creating political framework– Both partners have increasingly deepened mutual respect underpinned by openness, with democracy and diversity as the key principles for collective growth.
• Deepening economic ties– India’s huge market provides Taiwan with investment opportunities. The signing of a bilateral trade agreement in 2018 was an important milestone.

What should be India’s approach?

• Advantageous for India- In one sense, China’s preoccupation with its eastern ocean flank of the Yellow Sea, the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea is good for India.
• Diminishes Chinese attention- toward the Indian Ocean, India’s primary security theatre.
• Adhere to One China Policy- Prudence demands that India hew closely to its consistent one China policy even while maintaining and even expanding non-official relations with Taiwan.
• QUAD factor– For the US, Japan and Australia, members of the Quad, Taiwan is a key component of the Indo-Pacific strategy.

What are the lessons for India in the crisis?

• Articulate red lines– The most important lesson from the Taiwan standoff for policymakers in New Delhi is the importance of articulating red lines and sovereign positions in an unambiguous manner.
• Avoid appeasement- Appeasement of China, Taiwan knows, is not the answer to Beijing’s aggression. India’s policy of meeting/hosting Chinese leaders while the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) continue(d) to violate established territorial norms on the LAC is a deeply flawed one.
• Economic relationship is a two-way process- India for sure should do business with China, but not on China’s own terms.

Way forward

• Avoiding any escalation- both sides should maintain a restraint from further escalation of tensions keeping diplomatic channels open and actively pursuing back channel diplomacy.
• Respecting each-others sensitivities– on important unclear matters like Taiwan and taking up the trust building process.

• More Realistic approach by India– also, New Delhi must begin to deal with Taiwan as a weighty entity in its own right that offers so much to advance India’s prosperity.
• Wide view– Delhi does not have to discard its “One-China policy” to recognise that Taiwan is once again becoming the lightning rod in US-China tensions.

Conclusion

• After implanting “democracy with Chinese characteristics” in Hong Kong, thus, strengthening ‘One China Policy’, Taiwan is the next target.
• As Taiwan becomes the world’s most dangerous flashpoint, the geopolitical consequences for Asia and the world are real. A restraint from all sides is thus a sine qua non.
• Although New Delhi has embraced the Indo-Pacific maritime construct, it is yet to come to terms with Taiwan’s critical role in shaping the strategic future of Asia’s waters.

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Context

• Recently, the United Nation’s World Population Prospects (WPP) Report 2022 was released which predicted that India is projected to surpass China as the world’s most populous country in 2023, much earlier than previously thought.
• The population and related topics have been in news for past one year which makes the population and associated topics important for the upcoming Mains Examination, 2022.

About the UN World Population Prospect Report

• World Population Prospects 2022 is the official estimate and projections of the global population that have been published by the United Nations since 1951.
• They form a comprehensive set of demographic data to assess population trends at the global, regional and national levels.
• This report provides an overview of global population trends focusing on the period from 1950 to 2050 and presents a summary of key demographic prospects during the second half of the present century.

Key highlights

• The world’s population is projected to reach 8 billion on 15 November 2022.
• The global population is still growing, albeit at a reduced rate. Some countries and regions continue to experience further population growth, while others have witnessed a stabilization or begun to decrease in population size.
• In 2021, the average fertility of the world’s population stood at 2.3 births per woman over a lifetime, having fallen from about 5 births per woman in 1950.
• The world population might peak at around 10.4 billion in 2086.

Indian Population trends

• The total population of India currently stands at 1.37 billion which is 17.5% of the world population.
• Between 1992 and 2015, India’s Total fertility rate (TFR) had fallen by 35% from 3.4 to 2.2.
• Young people (15-29 age years) form 27.2% of the population in 2021. This made India enter the Demographic dividend stage.
• The percentage of the elderly population has been increasing from 6.8% in 1991 to 9.2% in 2016.

Causes of Population growth

• Higher birth rate: We have been successful in declining the death rates but the same cannot be said for birth rates.
• Fertility rate: is much higher compared to other countries.
• Early Marriage and Universal Marriage System: Getting married at a young age prolongs the childbearing age. Also, in India, marriage is a sacred obligation and a universal practice, where almost every woman is married at reproductive age.

• Poverty and Illiteracy: Another factor for the rapid growth of the population is poverty. Impoverished families have this notion that more the members in the family, the more will be the numbers to earn income. Some feel that more children are needed to look after them in their old age. Also, hunger can be the cause of death of their children and hence the need for more children. Strange but true, Indian still lags behind the use of contraceptives and birth control methods. Many of them are not willing to discuss or are totally unaware of them. Illiteracy is thus another cause of overpopulation.
• Age old cultural norm: Sons are the bread earners of families in India. This age-old thought puts considerable pressure on the parents to produce children till a male child or the required number of male children are born (This is called Son Meta preference).
• Illegal migration: Last but not the least, we cannot ignore the fact that illegal migration is continuously taking place from Bangladesh and Nepal is leading to increased population density.
• Lack of awareness: about family planning and its benefits, government schemes related to family welfare like free birth control measures leading to unwanted pregnancies and ultimately population growth.

Implications of high population

A. Negative outcomes:

• Poor achievement of SDGs: Sustained high fertility and rapid population growth present challenges to the achievement of sustainable development. The necessity of educating growing numbers of children and young people, for example, draws resources away from efforts to improve the quality of education.
• Unemployment: Generating employment for a huge population in a country like India is very difficult. The number of illiterate persons increases every year. The unemployment rate is thus showing an increasing trend.

• Pressure on infrastructure: The development of infrastructural facilities is unfortunately not keeping pace with the growth of the population. The result is a lack of transportation, communication, housing, education, healthcare etc. There has been an increase in the number of slums, overcrowded houses, traffic congestion etc.
• Manpower utilization: The number of jobless people is on the rise in India due to economic depression and slow business development and expansion activities. It has also caused India to be the home of the largest force of Gig Workers in the world and large informal economy. This ultimately leads to poor or stagnant living standards, slow progress in Human Capital Development and Social Mobility for a large section of society.
• Faster and inefficient resource utilization: Land areas, water resources, forests are over exploited. There is also scarcity of resources.
• Decreased production and increased costs: Food production and distribution have not been able to catch up with the increasing population and hence the costs of production have increased. Inflation is the major consequence of overpopulation.
• Inequitable income distribution: In the face of an increasing population, unequal distribution of income and inequalities within the country widen.
• Increasing divergence in the representation of different states in Parliament of India: higher population growth in north Indian states as compared to southern states has led to the freezing of the number of seats in parliament till 2026. This has caused a political tussle between less developed northern and largely developed southern Indian states.

However, there are a few Positive outcomes also:

• Largest pool of consumers: an increase in population means an increase in consumers and expansion of the demand for raw materials as well as finished products leading to high consumption and thus higher economic activities. Thus, India has become the largest market in the world for companies around the world.
• According to the neo-classical growth model, the population is beneficial to an economy because population growth is correlated to technological advancement. The rising population promotes the need for some sort of technological change to meet the rising demands for certain goods and services.
• Demographic dividend in India: India’s unique population structure with around 66% population in the working age group (15-59 years) has brought her at the cusp of a major transition for the next two decades. This has made it one of the youngest countries in the world which may put India on the path of high development as happened in China between 1991 and 2011.

Population control measures that can be taken

• Social Measure: Population outburst is considered to be a social problem and it is intensely rooted in civilization. It is, therefore, necessary to make efforts to eliminate the social iniquities in the country. Minimum age of Marriage: As fertility depends on the age of marriage therefore the minimum age of marriage should be raised. In India minimum age for marriage is 21 years for men and 18 years for women fixed by law. This law should be strongly implemented and people should also be made aware of this through promotion.
• Raising the Status of Women: There are prevalent biases against women. They are restricted to houses. They are still confined to rearing and bearing of children. So women should be given opportunities to develop socially and economically. Free education should be given to them.
• Spread education: The spread of education changes the views of people. The educated men take mature decisions and prefer to delay marriage and adopt small family customs. Educated women are health mindful and avoid frequent pregnancies and thus help in lowering the birth rate.
• Adoption: is also an effective way to curb population. Some parents do not have any child, despite expensive medical treatment. It is recommended that they should adopt orphan children. It will be helpful to orphan children and children to couples.
• Economic Measures: It is necessary is to raise the employment opportunities in rural as well as urban areas. Another economic measure for population control is the development of Agriculture and Industry. If agriculture and industry are correctly developed, a huge number of people will get employment. When their income is increased they would enhance their standard of living and accept small family norms.
• Urbanization: process can reduce population increase. It is reported that people in urban areas have low birth rate than those living in rural areas. Urbanization should be encouraged.
• Strict birth control measures: are needed such as China has adopted the strategy to decrease the birth rate. But it is not possible to reduce technological advancements to decrease the death rate in India. In order to reduce the birth rate, several government-funded agencies like the Family Planning Association of India spend excessive funds to promote family planning as a basic human right and the norm of a two-child family voluntarily.
• Creating awareness about family planning: The family planning methods provided by the family planning program are vasectomy, tubectomy, IUD, conventional contraceptives (that is condoms, diaphragms, jelly/cream tubes, foam tables) and oral pills.

Steps taken for population control in India

• After independence, a Population Policy Committee was created in 1952 which suggested the appointment of a Family Planning Research and Programmes Committee in 1953.
• Central Family Planning Board was created in 1956 which emphasized sterilization. Up till the 1960s a rigid policy was not adopted to arrest the fast growth of the population. The policy framed in 1951-52 was ad hoc in nature, flexible, and based on a trial and error approach.

• The New Population Policy, 1977: The Government of India introduced first National Population Policy in 1976, which focussed on reducing birth rate, lowering infant mortality rate and improving the standard of life.
• The National Population Policy 2000: provided a comprehensive framework to provide the reproductive and health needs of the people of India for the next ten years.

• Mission Parivar Vikas (MPV), 2016: Under the scheme, innovative strategies like the distribution of Nayi Pehel kits, Saas Bahu Sammelan, and Saarthi vans are helping in reaching out to the community and initiating dialogues on family planning and healthy birth spacing, and the importance of small families.
• Raising the marriage age for girls: Recently, the Government proposed the Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021, which seeks to raise the age of legal marriage for women from 18 to 21, which would further help in reducing fertility rates.

Some green shoots

• There have been some encouraging trends in India’s population in the Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report (2018) and global population projections made by the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), US.
• SRS report estimated the Total Fertility Rate (TFR), the number of children a mother would have at the current pattern of fertility during her lifetime, as 2.2 in the year 2018.
• Also, the recently released 5^th National Family Health Survey report has shown that India’s TFR has currently reached below the replacement level of fertility of 2.1 children per woman.
• As fertility declines, so does the population growth rate.

Controversies around Population Growth

• Demand for coercive population control measure on the lines of china: several local political leaders have been demanding coercive implementation of the 2-child policy and steps like the exclusion of couples with more than 2 children from government programs and employment. For example,

Uttar Pradesh Population (Control, Stabilization and Welfare) Bill, 2021, seeks to provide a series of incentives as well as list several punishments to families that adhere and do not adhere to a two-child norm.

• However, opponents of such a demand argue that it is against the fundamental rights of people and the democratic credentials of the nation and may promote illegal abortions threatening women’s health and safety.
• Communal overtone: several politicians try to falsely portray the population data to blame a particular community for the rising population of India. Also, several religious leaders also keep demanding couples to produce multiple children in order to maintain population majority in nation.

Way forward

• There is an urgent need to implement population-related government policies and programme in letter and spirit.
• Taking benefits of a smaller family to the last locality possible so as to make smaller families a norm right up to the districts which are still witnessing high TFR rates.
• Bringing women at the centre of family planning decisions and thus giving them control over their bodies.

Conclusion

• Hence, from above it is clear that India has come a long way in population control and planning. The recent Demographic data suggest that a ‘Social Revolution’ is underway in India.
• But still, a lot needs to be done. The Health, education and skills development of the Indian population needs acceleration to fully reap the benefits of the Demographic Dividend and achieve the goals of Aatmanirbhar Bharat and UN’s Sustainable Development Goals.

Context

• Recently, India got Droupadi Murmu elected as her 15^th President.
• However, several opposition leaders negatively commented on the President’s post in India as a ‘rubber stamp’ and ‘ceremonial head’ only with no powers. This reignited the debate around the President’s powers and position in India.
• This also makes the post and the process of election of President of India important for the upcoming UPSC mains 2022 examination and Preliminary examination in 2023.

About the President Post in India

Former PM Jawaharlal Nehru on the post of President of India- “President is the “Head that neither reign nor governs” but holds a position of “authority or dignity” 

Why do we need a President in India?

• The Constitution of India has provided for a Parliamentary form of government that has two executive heads- nominal and real executive.
• Consequently, President has been made the Nominal head of the executive; the council of ministers headed by the prime minister is the real executive. The President has to exercise his powers and functions with the aid and advice of the council of ministers.
• The logic behind having a nominal head is to provide continuity to the government. The Parliamentary system of government is inherently unstable and the government may go if it loses the vote of confidence. So, President acts as the head of the state during this period.
• Another reason to have a President is to have a “neutral head” representing the views of all the parties. His institution is a symbol of a “nonpartisan” institution. (this is the reason we see opposition MP’s visiting President against ruling government actions and asking him to take appropriate action)

Dr. BR Ambedkar summed up the post of President in the following ways:

 “The title of the functionary(President) reminds of the President of United States. But beyond the identity of titles, there is nothing in common between the two. Under Indian Constitution, the President occupies the same position as the king under the English Constitution.

Election Procedure for President of India

Electing the President

• The provisions of the election of the President are laid down in Article 54 of the Constitution of India.
• The Presidential and Vice-Presidential Election Act 1952 led to the establishment of this Constitutional provision.

Qualifications to become the President of India

The qualification of be the President of India are given below:

• He/ She must be an Indian citizen
• A person must have completed the age of 35.
• A person must be qualified for election as a member of the House of the People.
• Must not hold a government (central or state) office of profit
• A person is eligible for election as President if he/she is holding the office of President or Vice-President.

Actual course of election

• The President of India is elected indirectly by an Electoral College following the system of proportional representation utilizing a single transferable vote system and secret ballots.
• MPs and MLAs vote based on parity and uniformity values.

Electoral College composition-

 Legislative Assemblies of the States:

• According to the provision of Article 333, every state’s Legislative Assembly must consist of not less than 60 members but not more than 500 members.

Council of States:

• 12 members are nominated by the President of India based on skills or knowledge in literature, arts, science, and social service to act as the members of the Council of States.
• In total, 238 represent act as representatives from both the States and Union Territories.

House of the People:

• The composition of the House of People consists of 530 members (no exceeding) from the state territorial constituencies.
• They are elected through direct election.
• The President further elects 20 more members (no exceeding) from the Union Territories.
• Uniformity in the scale of representation of states
• To maintain the proportionality between the values of the votes, the following formula is used:

Value of vote of an MLA= total no. of the population of the particular state/ number of elected MLAs of that state divided by 1000.

Single vote system

• During the Presidential election, one voter can cast only one vote.
• While the MLAs vote may vary state to state, the MPs vote always remain constant.
• MPs and MLAs vote balance
• The number of the total value of the MPs votes must equal the total value of the MLAs to maintain the State and the Union balance.

Quotas:

• The candidate reaching the winning quota or exceeding it is the winner.
• The formula sued is ‘Winning quota total number of poll/ no.of seats + 1’.

Voters’ preference:

• During the Presidential election, the voter casts his vote in favor of his first preferred candidate.
• However, in case the first preference candidate does not touch the winning quota, the vote automatically goes to the second preference.
• The first preferred candidate with the lowest vote is eliminated and the votes in his/her favor are transferred to the remaining candidates.

Why need Proportional representation?

• The President of India is elected through proportional representation using the means of the single transferable vote (Article 55(3)).
• It allows the independent candidates and minority parties to have the chance of representation.
• It allows the practice of coalition with many voters under one government.
• This system ensures that candidates who are elected don’t represent the majority of the electorate’s opinion.

Why is President indirectly elected?

• If Presidents were to be elected directly, it would become very complicated.
• It would, in fact, be a disaster because the public doesn’t have absolute clarity of how the President-ship runs or if the candidate fits the profile of a President.
• Another reason why the direct election system isn’t favourable is that the candidate running for the President’s profile will have to campaign around the country with the aid of a political party.
• And, this will result in a massive political instability.
• Moreover, it would be difficult and impossible for the government to hand out election machinery (given the vast population of India).
• This will cost the government financially, and may end up affecting the economy as well.
• The indirect election system is a respectable system for the First Man of India (rightly deserving).
• The system/method of indirect electing of the President also allows the states to maintain neutrality and minimize hostility.

Impeachment of President of India

• Article 61 provides for the Impeachment of President on the grounds of violation of the Constitution. But the Constitution does not define the phrase ‘violation of the Constitution’. It is a quasi-judicial process.

• The President may be removed before the expiry of the term through impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India.
• The process may start in either of the two houses of the parliament.
• The house initiates the process by levelling the charges against the President.
• The charges are contained in a notice that has to be signed by at least one-quarter of the total members of that house.
• The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.

Procedure

• A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the originating house.
• It is then sent to the other house.
• The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend oneself through an authorised counsel.
• If the second house also approves the charges made by special majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated their office from the date when such a resolution stands passed.
• No President has faced impeachment proceedings so the above provisions have never been used.

Powers and functions of the President of India

The powers and functions of President has been divided into several categories like:

Executive Powers

• Every executive action is taken in the name of President..
• He makes rules for the business transaction of executive.
• He appoints a number of important executive members like CAG, chairman UPSC, governors of states etc.

  Legislative Powers-

• He holds the powers to summons or prorogues and dissolve the Lok Sabha
• Joint sittings of both houses are called by President in case of a deadlock.
•  He addresses the Indian Parliament at the commencement of the first session after every general election
• Appointment of speaker, deputy speaker of Lok Sabha, and chairman/deputy chairman of Rajya Sabha are made by him.
• 12 members of the Rajya Sabha are nominated by him.
• Several bills such as money bills are introduced with his prior permissions.

Financial Powers of President

• He causes Union Budget to be laid before the Parliament
• Contingency Fund of India is controlled by President.
• Finance Commission is constituted by him every year.

Judicial Powers of President

• Appointment of Chief Justice and Supreme Court/High Court Judges are made by him.
• Under article 143, he can seek advice from supreme court on a matter of public importance.

Pardoning powers in India

• Under the Constitution of India (Article 72), the President of India can grant a pardon or reduce the sentence of a convicted person, particularly in cases involving capital punishment. There are five different types of pardoning that are mandated by law.

• Pardon: means completely absolving the person of the crime and letting him go free. The pardoned criminal will be like a normal citizen.
• Commutation: means changing the type of punishment given to the guilty into a less harsh one, for example, a death penalty commuted to a life sentence.
• Reprieve: means a delay allowed in the execution of a sentence, usually a death sentence, for a guilty person to allow him some time to apply for Presidential Pardon or some other legal remedy to prove his innocence or successful rehabilitation.
• Respite: means reducing the quantum or degree of the punishment to a criminal in view of some special circumstances, like pregnancy, mental condition etc.
• Remission: means changing the quantum of the punishment without changing its nature, for example reducing twenty year rigorous imprisonment to ten years.

Emergency Powers of President:

• On advice of PM, President declares national emergency under Article 352, President’s rule in state under article 356 and financial emergency under article 360.

Ordinance Making Power

• Article 123 deals with the ordinance-making power of the President. He promulgates an ordinance on the recommendation of the union cabinet when either of the houses of the parliament is not in session.

Veto Power of the President.

Article 111 in India’s Constitution governs the Veto powers of the President. Indian President has the following veto powers-

• Absolute Veto – Withholding of assent to the Bill passed by the legislature.
• Suspensive Veto – Which can be overridden by the legislature with an ordinary majority.
• Pocket Veto – Taking no action on the Bill passed by the legislature.

Discretionary powers of the President

Indian constitutions do not explicitly provide the President with any discretionary powers. However, he has few situational discretions under the below-mentioned situations:

• Selection of the prime minister when no party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha or when there is vacancy in Prime Minister’s office due to sudden death of PM.
• Dismissing of the Council of Minister when it loses vote of confidence.
• Dissolution of the Lok Sabha if the council of minister has lost its majority vote.

Issues related to President of India

Despite sitting at the helm of the Constitution, the Presidential office has been the regular subject of criticism in the country because of the following reasons:

Being a Titular head only

• As per the mandate of Article 74 of the Constitution, the President is the Constitutional head of the Union Government and all executive actions are taken in his name.
• But in actual practice, it is the Prime Minister who makes the decisions and simply informs the President who is bound to act on his advice.

Being a Political Puppet/Rubber Stamp of Council of Minister

• President has been several times is termed as the rubber stamp of the government as he has to give approval to all executive decisions.
• For example, in 1975, the then President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, readily nodded to then PM Indira Gandhi’s demand for a declaration to impose a National Emergency.
• After 44^th constitutional amendment act, the scope of reconsideration of a bill passed by parliament by President was reduced to just once.
• BUT it does not mean that the President is merely a rubber stamp. A President with a  strong constitutional morality can make a difference. Under Article 78 of the Constitution the President has a Constitutional right to seek information from the Prime Minister. For example,

Former President K. R. Narayanan exercised his referral powers two times. He sent the advice of the Cabinet for its reconsideration related to the imposition of the President’s rule in the States of U.P. and Bihar during the Gujral and Vajpayee governments respectively and saved those governments.

• Eminent jurist Professor M. P. Jain: “The influence of the President depends on his personality. A man of character and ability can exert a potent influence on the affairs of the government with his advice, help, knowledge, and experience to arrive at decisions on matters affecting the well-being of the people”

Issue of Presidential activism

• It is a situation where the President asserts his discretionary powers and does not act according to the aid and advice of the council of ministers. India has a long history of activist Presidents.
• For example, Rajendra Prasad’s public criticism of government, returning of PEPSU bill in 1954. Similarly, KR Narayanan, APJ Abdul Kalam are also considered as activist Presidents.
• Many times, constitutional scholars have justified Presidential activism as it has helped in preserving federalism and preventing misuse of article 356.

• But from the perspective of legal experts, Presidential activism is not desirable in the parliamentary form of government. According to the author of the book “parliament in India” James Manor, the Constitution of India sanctions judicial activism but it doesn’t talks about Presidential activism. President is not an institution to hold the government accountable.

Misuse of Pardoning powers

• Under the Constitution of India (Article 72), the President of India can grant a pardon or reduce the sentence of a convicted person, particularly in cases involving capital punishment.
• This power is being widely abused by the President. Former President Pratibha Patil misused the power to great extent as evident form the fact that within 28 months of her Presidentship, she granted a record of 30 pardons which was equal to 90% of all pardons ever made by previous Presidents of India.

Choice of Presidential candidate:

• Many a times, the appointment of Presidential candidate is to appease particular community or section of the society. Also, he is not chosen directly by the people of the India.

Use of Office of President as reward for loyalty

• It is considered as office of reward for your life long allegiance to particular party or family.

Despite above criticisms, the President in India plays several crucial roles such as:

• Safeguard the foundation of parliamentary democracy in India.
• Involved in situation with no set precedent – appoint prime minister when no party has clear majority in lok sabha or when PM dies suddenly and there is no obvious successor.
• Custodian for safety of Constitution– He is a preserver, defender and protector of the Constitution of the country.
  
  In the words of former President of India R. Venkatraman, “the President in India is like an emergency lamp which comes to power only when the main switch is off”

Conclusion

• Thus, from above we can conclude that the post of President in India can be both ceremonial as well as active depending upon the nature of the person entering the office.
• All the Presidents in India by now has acted well according to their Constitutional mandates and helped protect the Constitution of India.

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