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Distribution: yearly

  • Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs) to Promote Natural Farming

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare has come up with the guidelines for setting up of bio-input resource centres (BRC) under the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF).

    What are Bio-Input Resource Centres (BRCs)?

    • BRCs are part of the National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF), aimed at promoting chemical-free and sustainable agriculture.
    • BRCs will produce, store, and supply bio-inputs like Jeevamrit, Beejamrit, and Neemastra using local livestock by-products and plant-based materials.
    • Key Functions:
      1. Local Production: Ensures availability of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, reducing dependency on synthetic inputs.
      2. Training: Provides training on bio-input preparation and natural farming techniques.
      3. Entrepreneurship: Promotes local entrepreneurship, empowering self-help groups (SHGs) and farmers.
      4. Affordability: Aims to make sustainable farming practices accessible to small and marginal farmers.
    • Financial support of Rs 1 lakh per BRC are provided in two tranches of Rs 50,000, though experts raise concerns about its adequacy for infrastructure.

    Back2Basics: National Mission on Natural Farming (NMNF):

    • NMNF is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme was launched on November 2024 under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, promoting chemical-free farming.
    • Objectives:
      • Focus on eco-friendly practices and organic methods.
      • Reduce input costs by minimizing chemical usage.
      • Restore soil health, promote biodiversity, and improve climate resilience.
    • Implementation Strategy:
      • Establish 15,000 clusters across Gram Panchayats.
      • Train 1 crore farmers and implement practices on 7.5 lakh hectares.
      • Establish 10,000 BRCs for bio-input accessibility.
      • Deploy 30,000 Krishi Sakhis for mobilization.
    • Financial Outlay: ₹2,481 crore until 2025-26.
    [UPSC 2021] How is permaculture farming different from conventional chemical farming?

    1.Permaculture farming discourages monocultural practices, but in conventional chemical farming, monoculture practices are predominant. 2.Conventional chemical farming can cause an increase in soil salinity, but this phenomenon is not observed in permaculture farming. 3.Conventional chemical farming is easily possible in semi-arid regions, but permaculture farming is not so easily possible in such regions. 4.The practice of mulching is very important in permaculture farming but not necessarily so in conventional chemical farming.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 and 3  (b) 1, 2, and 4* (c) 4 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] River Cities Alliance (RCA)

    Why in the News?

    The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) has approved an annual master plan for the River Cities Alliance (RCA), aimed at scaling up sustainable urban river rejuvenation.

    What is the River Cities Alliance (RCA)?

    • The RCA launched in 2021, promotes sustainable urban river management across India.
    • It is a joint initiative by the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs to integrate river-sensitive urban planning within cities.
    • It aims to strengthen institutional capacities, foster collaboration, and support the creation of Urban River Management Plans (URMPs).
    • As of 2025, 145 cities are part of the alliance, sharing best practices for river conservation.
    • Key activities include promoting river-sensitive planning, peer-to-peer learning, and training for urban local bodies (ULBs).

    About National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG):

    • The NMCG is a flagship initiative to rejuvenate the Ganga River through pollution abatement, ecological restoration, and community involvement.
    • Established in 2011, it implements the Namami Gange Program.
    • It was launched with a ₹20,000 crore budget, covering over 288 projects.
    • It focuses on pollution abatement and maintaining the ecological flow of the Ganga.
    • It operates under a five-tier framework, including the National Ganga Council and state/district committees.
    • Key Initiatives: Includes sewage treatment, riverfront development, real-time monitoring, and public awareness campaigns.
    • It also addresses floods, droughts, and waterlogging in the Ganga basin.
    [UPSC 2021] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?

    1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.

    2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.

    3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA on rotation basis.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • In news: Haji Pir Pass

    Why in the News?

    The recent Pahalgam terror attack has revived debates on India’s 1966 decision to surrender the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan during Tashkent Agreement of 1966.

    This move is compared to the Soviet Union’s 1954 transfer of Crimea, which created lasting security challenges.

    About Haji Pir Pass:

    • The Haji Pir Pass is located in the Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir, at an altitude of 2,637 meters (8,652 feet).
    • It connects Poonch in India to Rawalakot in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
    • Historically, it was a vital route for connecting Jammu to the Kashmir Valley before 1947, making it an essential part of India’s transportation network.
    • Post-partition, it became part of PoK and, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, India recaptured it under Operation Bakshi.
    • However, it was returned to Pakistan following the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, a decision criticized by many experts.

    How Haji Pir Pass is a Chokepoint?

    • Strategic Military Route: The pass provides Pakistan with the ability to control and monitor the Kashmir Valley from a high-altitude position, serving as a key route for military logistics and infiltration.
    • Gateway for Infiltration: Historically, it has been used for militant infiltration into India, fuelling insurgency and instability in Kashmir.
    • Shortened Military Access: Retaining the pass would have reduced the distance between Poonch and Uri from 282 km to 56 km, improving India’s military logistics and rapid deployment.
    • Control over Key Terrain: Controlling the pass enables domination of the surrounding hills, limiting Pakistan’s ability to sustain military pressure and infiltration.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • Sariska TR’s Critical Tiger Habitat to grow by 4.5k Hectares

    Why in the News?

    The Critical Tiger Habitat (CTH) of Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR) in Rajasthan is set to expand by approximately 4,500 hectares.

    What is Critical Tiger Habitat (CTH)?

    • CTHs are designated under the Wildlife Protection Act (WLPA), 1972, to conserve tiger populations, keeping areas inviolate for tiger conservation.
    • The core areas of tiger reserves, where human activities are prohibited, serve as Critical Tiger Habitats.
    • Surrounding buffer zones allow sustainable human activities like eco-tourism and regulated resource use, supporting conservation efforts.
    • These areas are scientifically identified based on studies of tiger movement, breeding patterns, and environmental needs, ensuring long-term survival and ecological balance.
    • Scheduled Tribes and other forest dwellers’ rights are respected within the legal framework, making conservation inclusive.
    • The largest critical tiger habitat in India is the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (NSTR) spanning 5937 square kilometers.

    About Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR):

    • STR is located in Alwar district, Rajasthan, about 107 km from Jaipur, and is one of India’s most important tiger reserves.
    • Initially a royal hunting preserve, it became a sanctuary in 1955 and upgraded to a national park in 1979.
    • STR was one of the first tiger reserves under the Project Tiger initiative.
    • In 2008, after the tiger population was wiped out due to poaching and human encroachment, tigers were successfully relocated to the reserve, marking a world-first for tiger reintroduction.
    • Flora: STR has semi-deciduous forests, grasslands, rocky landscapes, and cliffs. The park is primarily dominated by dhok trees, covering around 90% of the area, alongside other species like salar, kadaya, and gol trees.
    • Fauna: The reserve is home to species like tigers, leopards, sambhar deer, nilgai, wild boars, rhesus macaques, and hyenas.
    • Ruparel River flows through STR, contributing to its ecological richness by supporting wildlife and plant species.
    [UPSC 2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?

    Options: (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam* (d) Sunderbans

     

  • The history and evolution of monsoon forecasting in India

    Why in the News?

    The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has predicted that the rainfall during the June-September southwest monsoon season will be higher than usual, around 105% of the average rainfall over a long period.

    What are the main factors that influence the Indian monsoon, as mentioned by the IMD?

    • El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): El Niño, which is characterized by warming sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, tends to reduce monsoon rainfall over India. Eg, during the 2015 El Niño event, India experienced a weakened monsoon and below-normal rainfall.
    • Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): The IOD refers to temperature differences between the western and eastern Indian Ocean. A positive IOD (warmer waters in the west) is typically linked to above-average rainfall in India, while a negative IOD can lead to drought conditions. Eg,2019 saw a positive IOD, which helped counterbalance the El Niño and brought more rainfall.
    • Himalayan Snow Cover: As observed by Blanford, the amount of snow accumulation in the Himalayas influences the monsoon. A thicker snow cover in the winter months often leads to increased rainfall during the subsequent monsoon. Eg, years with heavy snowfall in the Himalayas tend to see better monsoon rainfall in regions like Northwest India.

    How did Blanford contribute to the development of monsoon forecasting in India?

    • Identified the Snow-Monsoon Relationship: Blanford discovered an inverse relationship between the amount of snow accumulated in the Himalayas during winter and the subsequent monsoon rainfall over India. He hypothesized that greater snow accumulation led to a stronger monsoon. This was the basis for early monsoon predictions. Eg: Between 1882-1885, Blanford used Himalayan snow cover data to predict the intensity of the monsoon, marking a key step in systematic weather forecasting.
    • First Long-Range Forecast (1886): Blanford made India’s first long-range monsoon forecast in 1886, predicting the seasonal rainfall across India and Burma based on his snow-rain hypothesis. This was a pioneering effort in utilizing long-term data for weather predictions. Eg: Blanford’s 1886 forecast was the first to consider annual snowfall patterns in the Himalayas to predict the monsoon’s arrival and intensity across the entire Indian subcontinent.
    • Foundation for Modern Meteorology: Blanford’s work laid the foundation for further development in meteorology and forecasting. His research on snow cover influenced future meteorologists, including Sir John Eliot and Sir Gilbert Walker, who refined and expanded his methods using new data sources and statistical models. Eg: Blanford’s ideas directly influenced later meteorologists, helping to evolve more comprehensive models, including those considering global atmospheric factors.

    Why were IMD’s forecasts inaccurate between 1932 and 1987?

    • Outdated Predictors: The parameters identified by Sir Gilbert Walker, such as the Southern Oscillation and other atmospheric factors, had lost their significance over time, meaning their relationship with the monsoon was no longer consistent. This led to inaccurate forecasts. Eg: For instance, in the period 1932-1987, the forecast errors were significant, with average errors of 12.33 cm for the peninsula and 9.9 cm for Northwest India, indicating the failure of the existing model.
    • Failure to Adapt to New Data: Despite attempts to tweak Walker’s model, the IMD did not fully integrate new meteorological data and evolving atmospheric conditions, leading to persistent inaccuracies in monsoon prediction. Eg: The model failed to predict the 1987 drought, highlighting the inadequacy of the forecasting system during this period and the inability to account for changing atmospheric patterns.

    How has the IMD’s forecasting system improved since 2007?

    • Introduction of Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System (SEFS): In 2007, the IMD introduced the SEFS, which combined multiple models to generate a more robust prediction. This reduced the error margin and improved the accuracy of forecasts by considering different possible outcomes. Eg: The SEFS helped reduce the average absolute error in forecasts between 2007 and 2018 to 5.95% of the long-period average (LPA), compared to a higher 7.94% error in the earlier period (1995-2006).
    • Launch of the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS): In 2012, the IMD launched the MMCFS, which integrated ocean, atmosphere, and land data for more accurate predictions. This coupled dynamic model enabled better predictions by accounting for the interactions between various climate factors. Eg: The MMCFS contributed to more accurate monsoon forecasts in the years following its introduction, helping the IMD predict monsoon patterns with greater precision.

    What impact did the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) have on IMD’s accuracy?

    • Improved Forecast Accuracy by Integrating Multiple Data Sources: The MMCFS combined data from the ocean, atmosphere, and land, allowing for a more holistic and accurate monsoon forecast. This helped the IMD provide more reliable predictions by considering the dynamic interactions between various climate components. Eg: After the introduction of MMCFS in 2012, the IMD was able to produce more precise monsoon predictions, particularly in terms of seasonal rainfall.
    • Enhanced Long-Term Predictive Capabilities: The coupled model allowed the IMD to improve long-term monsoon predictions by simulating real-world climate interactions more accurately, reducing errors in forecasting and enhancing the reliability of predictions over longer time spans. Eg: The model helped improve predictions such as the 2014 monsoon season, where the forecast matched the actual rainfall more closely than earlier years, highlighting its effectiveness in reducing forecast errors.

    Way forward: 

    • Integration of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Leveraging AI and ML can further refine IMD’s forecasting models by analyzing vast datasets more efficiently and identifying hidden patterns in climate behavior, improving the accuracy of short- and long-term monsoon predictions.
    • Collaboration with Global Climate Agencies: Strengthening partnerships with international climate research institutions can enhance data sharing and provide more comprehensive insights into global climate drivers affecting the Indian monsoon.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2015] How far do you agree that the behavior of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscapes? Discuss.

    Linkage: Forecasting is essential for understanding the behavior of the Indian monsoon. This article explores the evolution of monsoon forecasting in India, particularly by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).

  • The real Indian arbitrator needs to stand up

    Why in the News?

    India’s growing economy has sparked discussions on using arbitration to handle increasing commercial disputes. The overburdened court system makes arbitration a popular choice, but questions remain about its effectiveness.

    What are the two key parameters that define the credibility and legitimacy of Indian arbitration?

    • Efficient Conduct of Arbitral Proceedings: Arbitrators must manage timelines, procedures, and hearings to avoid unnecessary delays and ensure speedy resolution. Eg: In a construction contract dispute, an arbitrator who ensures hearings happen on schedule and avoids multiple adjournments boosts arbitration credibility.
    • Quality of Arbitral Awards: Arbitral awards must be factually accurate, well-reasoned, and legally sound so they can withstand court scrutiny. Eg: In a technology dispute, an arbitrator who carefully analyses technical evidence and explains compensation calculation clearly ensures the award is respected and upheld.

    Why has the identification of elite Indian arbitrators primarily with retired judges been seen as a limitation?

    • Over-Reliance on Judicial Experience: Assumes judicial skills alone are enough for arbitration, without adapting to arbitration’s flexible needs. Eg: A retired judge may strictly follow civil procedure rules, causing unnecessary delays in arbitration.
    • Court-like Procedures in Arbitration: Arbitrations tend to mimic lengthy court processes, losing their speed and efficiency advantage. Eg: Instead of quick hearings, a retired judge-arbitrator may insist on prolonged cross-examinations like a courtroom trial.
    • Poorly Reasoned Awards: Awards by some retired judges may lack commercial understanding and detailed reasoning, leading to challenges and setting-aside in courts. Eg: In a business valuation dispute, an arbitrator may issue an award without deeply analysing financial reports, making it vulnerable to appeal.
    • Lack of Soft Skills and International Best Practices: Many retired judges are unfamiliar with global arbitration practices and soft skills like consensus-building within a tribunal. Eg: In an international arbitration panel, an Indian retired judge might struggle to navigate cultural differences or informal deliberations.
    • Limited Diversity of Expertise: Arbitration needs experts from various fields (engineering, finance, tech), not just law, to handle complex technical disputes. Eg: In a complex infrastructure project dispute, a technical expert-arbitrator could resolve issues faster than a purely legal expert.

    Who plays the most decisive role in ensuring the efficiency and quality of arbitral proceedings in India?

    • Arbitrators Set the Procedural Framework: They design and enforce the timelines, hearing schedules, and procedural rules to keep the arbitration efficient. Eg: An arbitrator can fix strict deadlines for filing evidence to avoid unnecessary extensions.
    • Arbitrators Manage Disputes and Party Conduct: They resolve procedural disputes, manage party behavior, and can impose sanctions for delays or misconduct. Eg: If a party repeatedly seeks adjournments, the arbitrator can impose a cost penalty to maintain discipline.
    • Arbitrators Deliver Final, Reasoned Awards: They are responsible for writing high-quality, logical, and well-supported awards that stand strong in judicial review. Eg: In a financial fraud arbitration, a well-reasoned award citing expert evidence and quantifying losses strengthens the award’s credibility.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • Legislative Reforms: Passed the Arbitration and Conciliation (Amendment) Acts (2015, 2019, 2021) to reduce court interference, set strict timelines, and promote institutional arbitration. Eg: Introduction of a 12-month time limit to complete arbitration proceedings.
    • Establishment of Institutions: Set up the India International Arbitration Centre (IIAC) in New Delhi to promote institutional arbitration at par with global standards. Eg: IIAC aims to handle both domestic and international arbitrations efficiently.
    • Promoting Training and Accreditation: Government encouraged specialized training programs and certifications for arbitrators, including support for professional bodies like the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (CIArb) India branch. Eg: Collaboration with global arbitration bodies to train Indian arbitrators in international best practices.

    How can the Indian arbitration ecosystem diversify and improve the quality of its arbitrators? (Way forward)

    • Diversify the Pool of Arbitrators: Include not just retired judges and advocates, but also trained professionals from fields like engineering, finance, and technology. Eg: Appointing a financial expert as arbitrator in a complex banking dispute can lead to faster and better-informed decisions.
    • Mandatory Training and Accreditation: Every arbitrator, regardless of background, must undergo rigorous training through specialized certificate courses and workshops. Eg: A retired judge attending an international arbitration course learns modern practices like fast-track arbitration and efficient evidence management.
    • Promote a Culture of Professional Arbitration: Build an ecosystem where arbitration is seen as a specialized profession, not as a secondary option to court litigation. Eg: Creating prestigious professional associations and ranking systems for arbitrators can motivate continuous learning and excellence.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] Explain and distinguish between Lok Adalats and Arbitration Tribunals. Whether they entertain civil as well as criminal cases ?

    Linkage: Arbitration Tribunals, requiring an understanding of their nature and function as a form of dispute resolution, which is the central theme of the Article.

  • RBI Launches ‘.bank.in’ Domain to Combat Digital Payment Frauds

    Why in the News?

    To tackle the increasing number of digital payment frauds, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has introduced the exclusive ‘.bank.in’ domain for Indian banks.

    About the ‘.bank.in’ Domain

    • The ‘.bank.in’ domain was introduced in February 2025 to provide Indian banks with a unique online address, reducing the risk of fraudulent websites mimicking bank domains.
    • It will be operationalised by the Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT), under National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) oversight.
    • The ‘.in’ Code Top-Level Domain (ccTLD) is India’s national identifier on the internet.
    • This domain adds an extra layer of trust, distinguishing legitimate banks from fraudulent entities.
    • The IDRBT, operating under MeitY, has been authorised as the exclusive registrar for this domain.
    • All banks in India must transition to this by October 31, 2025, with both old and new domains likely in use during the transition period.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: The Reserve Bank of India’s recent directives relating to ‘Storage of Payment System Data’, popularly known as data diktat, command the payment system providers that

    1. they shall ensure that entire data relating to payment systems operated by them are stored in a system only in India

    2. they shall ensure that the systems are owned and operated by public sector enterprises

    3. they shall submit the consolidated system audit report to the Comptroller and Auditor General of India by the end of the calendar

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Similipal to be 107th National Park of India

    Why in the News?

    The Odisha government has notified Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR) as a national park, covering 845.70 sq/km. It is the 107th national park and the second in eastern Odisha, following Bhitarkanika.

    Similipal to be 107th National Park of India

    About Similipal National Park:

    • Situated in the Mayurbhanj district of northern Odisha, Similipal is surrounded by high plateaus and hills.
    • It includes the Khairiburu and Meghashini peaks, rising to 1,515 meters above sea level.
    • The park has a diverse terrain with hills, open grasslands, and wooded areas, supporting various species.
    • Flora: The park is home to 1,078 plant species, including 94 species of orchids, with Sal trees dominating the forests.
    • Fauna: It boasts diverse wildlife, including leopards, gaurs, elephants, sloth bears, and pangolins. Similipal also supports migratory birds like Bar-headed geese and Brahmini ducks.
    • Several indigenous tribes inhabit the region, such as Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, and Khadia.
    • Similipal was declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956, included under Project Tiger in 1973, and became a Biosphere Reserve in 2009.

    Melanistic Tigers of Similipal:

    • Similipal is home to the world’s only wild population of pseudo-melanistic tigers, with 13 known to inhabit the area.
    • These tigers have a distinct appearance due to higher melanin levels, causing a unique, black-striped coat.
    • The mutation in the Taqpep gene makes these tigers pseudo-melanistic.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following protected areas; 1. Bandipur 2. Bhitarkanika 3. Manas 4. Sundarbans

    Which of the above are declared Tiger Reserves?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 Only (b) 1, 3 and 4 Only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1,2, 3 and 4

     

  • Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise (SMILE) Scheme

    Why in the News?

    Under the SMILE scheme, the Union Social Justice Ministry has identified only 9,958 beggars across 81 cities, compared to 3.72 lakh recorded in the 2011 Census.

    About the SMILE Scheme:  

    • The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment launched the SMILE scheme in 2022.
    • It is a Central Sector Scheme to rehabilitate individuals engaged in begging and empower transgender persons.
    • It focuses on rehabilitation, livelihood opportunities, skill development, and social empowerment for marginalized individuals.
    • It combines previous programs targeting beggars and transgender persons, providing a more cohesive approach to their empowerment.
    • Key Components:
      • Shelter Homes: Utilizes existing shelter homes managed by state/UT governments; new homes will be established where necessary.
      • Livelihood Support: Provides education, documentation, skill development, and economic linkages to help individuals become self-sufficient.
      • Target Beneficiaries: Around 60,000 marginalized individuals.
    • Implementation:
      • Pilot project has been launched in 30 cities (Phase 1) and extended to 50 more cities (Phase 2).
      • A local survey identifies individuals engaged in begging, aiming to rehabilitate 25 individuals per survey.
      • ₹100 crore has been allocated for FY 2023-24 to 2025-26, with ₹14.71 crore spent by December 2024 on identification and rehabilitation.

    Issues in Implementation:

    • Inadequate Shelter Infrastructure: Some regions face a lack of facilities for rehabilitation.
    • Resistance to Rehabilitation: Some individuals resist rehabilitation due to socio-economic factors or distrust in government schemes.
    • Funding and Resource Constraints: Ongoing financial investment is required for sustainability.
    • Sustainability of Rehabilitation: Long-term support is essential for successful reintegration into society.
    [UPSC 2016] ‘Rashtriya Garima Abhiyaan’ is a national campaign to-

    (a) rehabilitate the homeless and destitute persons and provide them with suitable sources of livelihood*

    (b) abolish the Child Labour

    (c) salvage the marshy lands and wetlands in the coastal areas and cultivate crops in them

    (d) rehabilitate the manual scavengers and provide them with suitable sources of livelihood

     

  • India raises Continental Shelf claim in Arabian Sea Region

    Why in the News?

    India has recently expanded its claim in the Central Arabian Sea by nearly 10,000 square kilometers as part of its ‘extended continental shelf,’ modifying an earlier claim to resolve a dispute with Pakistan.

    India raises Continental-Shelf claim in Arabian Sea Region

    About Extended Continental Shelf (ECS):

    • ECS refers to the area beyond 200 nautical miles that countries can claim by submitting geological and geophysical evidence to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS).
    • These claims allow countries to explore resources like oil, gas, and minerals on and beneath the seabed.
    • Coastal states have rights to an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) up to 200 nautical miles from their coastline.
    • However, such States can claim additional seabed area beyond this limit if they prove scientifically that the continental shelf extends naturally from their landmass.

    Back2Basics: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS)

    • The CLCS estd. In 1997, is a UN body under the UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) that helps states determine the outer limits of their continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles.
    • The CLCS reviews the scientific data provided by states and makes binding recommendations on the extent of the outer shelf limits.
    • The commission comprises 21 experts from geology, geophysics, and hydrography, ensuring legal compliance and peaceful boundary resolution.

    India’s Modified Claims and Pakistan:

    • India first submitted a claim in 2009 for an extended shelf in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean, and Arabian Sea, claiming an additional 1.2 million square kilometers.
    • After Pakistan’s objections, India modified its claim, splitting it into two parts to resolve disputes and ensure uncontroversial areas in the Central Arabian Sea.
    • India also increased its claim by 10,000 square kilometers using new scientific data.
    • The Sir Creek area, a disputed waterway between India and Pakistan, remains a point of contention, but India’s modification aims for peaceful resolution.
    • India’s claim overlaps with Oman’s shelf, but the two countries have an agreement to keep the delimitation open without conflict.
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

    1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

    2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

    3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*