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Exam Year: 2018

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    The NCSC, established under Article 338, is a constitutional body mandated to safeguard the interests and rights of Scheduled Castes (SCs).

    Constitutional and Legal Position on reservation for the SC in the religious minority institutions

    Article 15(4) & 16(4)- Empower the State to make special provisions for socially and educationally backward classes, including SCs.

    Article 30(1)- Grants minority communities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

    Article 338(5)- Authorizes NCSC to investigate, monitor, and report on safeguards provided for SCs.

    Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950- Restricts SC status to Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists, excluding Muslims and Christians.

    Key Judicial Pronouncements

    T.M.A. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka (2002)- Minority institutions have the right to autonomy in administration under Article 30, though subject to reasonable regulation.

    P.A. Inamdar v. State of Maharashtra (2005)- State cannot impose reservation policy on unaided minority institutions.

    Analysis

    The NCSC can recommend or monitor steps for reservation in institutions, but it cannot enforce such provisions in minority institutions, as-

    Article 30(1) guarantees minorities autonomy in managing their educational institutions.

    Judicial precedents protect minority institutions from mandatory reservation.

    NCSC’s powers are recommendatory, not binding.

    Furthermore, since Scheduled Castes of minority religions (Muslims and Christians) are not constitutionally recognized as SCs, NCSC has no jurisdiction over them.

    The matter instead falls under the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) or policy domain of the Parliament, not NCSC’s enforcement powers.

    Any change in this framework requires constitutional amendment and judicial validation to balance SC Rights with Articles 29-30 protections.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    The framers of the Indian Constitution, drawing from the experience of political and economic instability during colonial times, provided for Financial Emergency under Article 360.

    Circumstances for Proclamation

    The President may proclaim a Financial Emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or credit of India, or any part thereof, is threatened.

    Such a proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months (30 days if Lok Sabha is dissolved).

    Once approved, it remains in force until revoked by the President; no maximum time limit is prescribed.

    Consequences of Financial Emergency

    Union Control over State Finances – The Union can direct States to follow financial discipline and reduce expenditure.

    Reservation of Money Bills – All State Money Bills must be reserved for the President’s approval.

    Reduction of Salaries – The President may direct reduction in salaries and allowances of persons serving the Union or State, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.

    Executive Directions – Union may issue binding directions to States regarding financial propriety.

    Centralisation of Fiscal Powers – Parliament acquires a dominant role in fiscal management, subordinating State autonomy.

    Though never invoked in India, the provision of Financial Emergency underscores the precautionary design of the Constitution.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    According to LS speaker Om Birla, Parliamentary Committees are the “backbone of parliamentary democracy.

    Parliamentary committees

    Standing Committees – PAC, Estimate committee, Committee on public undertaking

    Ad-Hoc Committees – Eg- JPC

    Importance of Parliamentary Committees

    Checks and Balances – Eg- PAC examined CAG’s 2G spectrum report for irregularities.

    In-Depth Policy Analysis – Enable clause-by-clause scrutiny of Bills, which is not possible in open House debates. Eg- JPC on Data Protection Bill (2019) proposed over 90 amendments

    Reducing Legislative Workload – Committees share Parliament’s burden, ensuring thorough scrutiny without delaying legislation.

    Expert Consultation – Committees invite experts, industry, and civil society to promote evidence-based policymaking.

    Budgetary Oversight – Departmentally Related Standing Committees (DRSCs) analyse ministry budgets to ensure fiscal prudence.

    Consensus Building – Committees promote bipartisan dialogue, e.g., IT Committee built consensus on the Personal Data Protection Bill (2019).

    Public Engagement – Committees seek public and expert inputs, e.g., Standing Committee on Environment reviewed the EIA Draft Notification (2020).

    Continuity in Oversight – Committees function year-round, ensuring continuous policy review beyond parliamentary sessions.

    Bridging Knowledge Gaps – Committees enhance MPs’ expertise through research support and technical briefings.

    Role of the Estimates Committee

    Established under Rule 310 of the Lok Sabha, it has 30 Lok Sabha members and is chaired by a ruling party MP.

    Examines budget estimates to ensure efficiency, economy, and effectiveness.

    Suggests alternative policies for better fiscal management and administrative reform.

    Monitors implementation of government schemes and performance of ministries.

    Eg- Under Murli Manohar Joshi (2018), it reviewed PSU disinvestment and defence procurement, highlighting fiscal prudence.

    In the words of Woodrow Wilson, “Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, while Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work.”

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    The indentured labour system (1834-1920) was described as a ‘new system of slavery’ that transported over 1.5 million Indians to British colonies across the world.

    Why indentured labour was taken from India

    The British abolished slavery in 1833-34, creating a massive labour shortage in plantation colonies. Eg- Sugar plantations in the Caribbean (Trinidad, Guyana, Jamaica), Mauritius, Fiji, South Africa, and Malaya.

    Availability of Cheap Indian Labour due to poverty, famines, and landlessness in India.

    Colonial Economic Interests

    The plantation economy required large-scale, disciplined, cheap labour for sugar, tea, rubber, and cotton.

    Indian labourers were considered hardworking, docile, and adaptable to tropical climates.

    Imperial strategic interests – Dispersal of Indian labour created a loyal colonial workforce in distant territories.

    Introduction of the “Girmit” System: The British established a legalistic five-year contract mechanism that bound illiterate peasants to penal colonial labor.

    Industrial Demand for Sugar: The European industrial revolution drove a massive surge in global consumer demand for sugar, rubber, and cocoa crops.

    Preservation of Cultural Identity

    Aspects Preserved

    Hindu and Muslim religious practices maintained. Eg- Indian temples in Mauritius, Trinidad.

    Languages survived – Bhojpuri, Tamil, Hindi spoken in Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad, Suriname.

    Festivals – Eg- Diwali is a national holiday in Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, and Mauritius.

    Food culture – Indian cuisine adapted and thrived. Eg- Roti and curry across Caribbean and Pacific islands.

    Bollywood and Indian cultural products maintain connections.

    Aspects Transformed or Lost

    Caste system weakened in diaspora due to shared experience of exploitation.

    Inter-ethnic marriages and cultural mixing. Eg- Indo-Fijian and Creole-Indian identities.

    Political marginalisation in some nations. Eg- Indo-Fijians faced ethnic tensions and coups.

    The Indian diaspora born of indentured labour has preserved a remarkable degree of cultural identity while adapting to new environments, contributing to the multicultural fabric of nations across the globe.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    Formation of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand in 2000, Telangana in 2014, and the reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir in 2019 were driven by demands for administrative efficiency, regional development, identity recognition, and better governance.

    Benefits of new state formation for the economy of India

    Higher growth rate – Eg- Uttarakhand’s economy has grown over 20 times in size in 23 years

    Balanced regional development – Addresses neglect of backward regions within larger states. Eg- Uttarakhand focused on hill infrastructure and tourism-led growth.

    Improved capital expenditure prioritization – Eg- Telangana increased irrigation spending through projects like Kaleshwaram.

    Fiscal focus on local needs – Eg- Hill-area connectivity in Uttarakhand vs plains-focused spending earlier.

    Better resource utilization –

    Telangana focused on IT and Pharma, leading to a GSDP share increase from 4.1% in 2014 to nearly 5% of national GDP by 2024-25.

    Jharkhand (40% of India’s mineral wealth) and Chhattisgarh significantly improved their mining and steel output post-formation.

    Employment generation – Eg- New state secretariats, universities, and agencies creating jobs.

    Competitive federalism gains – States innovate to attract investment. Eg- Telangana’s TS-iPASS single-window clearance system.

    Urban growth engines – New capitals stimulate construction and services. Eg- Development of Amravati in Andhra Pradesh.

    Administrative efficiency – reduced the “distance” between the government and the governed lead to faster and efficient decision-making. Eg- improved PDS coverage in Chhattisgarh.

    Counter-arguments – drawbacks for the economy of India

    Revenue dependence – New states rely heavily on central transfers.

    Uneven development within new states – Eg- Tribal belts in Chhattisgarh remain underdeveloped.

    Fragmentation of the national market – Eg- Different state-level compliances increasing transaction costs.

    Inter-state disputes over resources – Water, power, and assets become contentious. Eg- Krishna-Godavari water disputes between Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

    High administrative costs –

    Creation of capitals, assemblies, and cadres strains finances. Eg- creation of Amravati

    Increase in per-unit costs of administration due to duplication of departments.

    Over-Administration also fuels corruption. Eg- Pooja Singhal case

    Weak institutional capacity – New administrations take time to mature. Eg- Staffing shortages and governance gaps in Uttarakhand.

    No automatic growth guarantee – Outcomes depend on governance quality. Eg- political instability in states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh deter long-term foreign investment.

    Environmental Degradation- Eg- industrialization and urbanization has led to disasters like the 2013 Kedarnath floods and 2023 Joshimath subsidence – High economic losses

    Way Forward

    Formation 2nd state reorganisation commission as suggested by Sudha Pai

    Strengthening cooperative federalism through Inter-state council – mandatory meetings and enforcement powers

    Strengthening fiscal federalism – Eg- state representation in Finance commission

    New state formation should be guided by objective economic criteria and robust transition planning to ensure that political reorganization strengthens economic growth.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    A Dead Zone is an area of a water body (ocean, lake, or estuary) where oxygen levels are so low (hypoxia) that they can no longer support most marine life. It results from Eutrophication, which fuels algal blooms.

    Consequences of Spreading ‘Dead Zones’

    Mass Mortality of Benthic Life- Sedentary organisms like clams, oysters, and lobsters cannot flee oxygen-poor waters. Eg- “crab kills” along the Oregon coast in early 2026 due to hypoxic events.

    Loss of Marine Biodiversity – Sensitive species disappear while only hypoxia-tolerant organisms survive. Eg- Decline of benthic fauna in the Baltic Sea.

    Increase in Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) – Dead zones often coincide with toxic blooms that release neurotoxins.

    Decline in Coral and Seagrass Ecosystems – Hypoxia weakens coral reefs and seagrass beds that require oxygenated waters.

    Forced Habitat Migration- Eg- In the Gulf of America, shrimp populations have shifted to “crowded edges” of the dead zone, leading to over-competition for food.

    Disruption of Marine Food Webs- The loss of bottom-dwelling prey species starves higher-level predators.

    Nutritional & Reproductive Impairment- hypoxia causes endocrine disruption, leading to smaller eggs and reduced spawning success.

    Hypoxic zones favor resilient, “opportunistic” species that thrive in low-oxygen environments. Eg- jellyfish blooms in the Sea of Japan.

    Release of Toxic Substances – Oxygen-poor conditions lead to release of hydrogen sulfide and methane, harmful to marine life.

    Way Forward

    Nutrient Management Plans- Implementing Precision Agriculture to reduce fertilizer runoff.

    Riparian Buffer Zones- Creating “Green Belts” of vegetation along rivers to filter out nutrients before they reach the ocean. Eg- Chesapeake Bay Model.

    Upgrade Wastewater Treatment- Transitioning to Tertiary Treatment plants that specifically remove nitrogen and phosphorus.

    Restore Natural Filters- Large-scale restoration of Wetlands and Oysters, which act as natural water purifiers.

    Shifting to Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), where seaweed and shellfish absorb excess nutrients from fish farms.

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) – Coordinated management of coastal resources to reduce pollution and habitat degradation.

    Protecting ocean oxygen levels is essential for sustaining healthy marine ecosystems and the livelihoods dependent on them.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    In the Indian context, communalism refers to a political ideology that uses religious identity to mobilize groups for secular ends. As per T.K. Oommen, it is the “politicization of religious identity.”

    Power Struggle Leading to Communalism

    Colonial Legacy of “Divide and Rule”- The British used communalism to prevent the rise of a united nationalist front. Eg- separate electorates under Morley-Minto Reforms.

    Partition of India due to power struggle between Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.

    Electoral Mobilization- “communal polarization” for vote bank politics. Eg- Ram Janmabhoomi movement

    The Institutionalized Riot System – Paul Brass argues that riots are produced through three stages- Preparation (constant tension), Activation, and Explanation for electoral benefits. Eg- hate speech-riots-blame game.

    Instrumentalist school- as per Asghar Ali Engineer, it is a tool used by the elites to safeguard their leadership and prevent class-based mobilization of the poor.

    Administrative Partisanship- If the state machinery appears biased, it emboldens communal actors. Eg- administrative paralysis during 1984 Anti-Sikh riots.

    Politicization of history – Eg- Conflicts over Gyanvapi Mosque or Shahi Idgah serve as sites for asserting cultural and political hegemony.

    Separatist movements like Khalistan and insurgency in North-East highlights struggle for political autonomy

    Political underrepresentation – Lack of voice in governance intensifies alienation. Eg- only 24 muslim MPs in 18th LS

    Relative Deprivation Leading to Communalism

    As per Ted Robert Gurr, relative deprivation occurs when there is a perceived gap between a group’s “value expectations” and their “value capabilities”.

    Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised Muslims not to join congress to increase their representation in government jobs. (Loyal Muhammadans of India – book)

    Socio-Economic Backwardness –

    Sachar Committee Report (2006) highlighted the lack of Muslims in government jobs, fueling a sense of systemic deprivation.

    Ghettoization and poverty in cities foster “us vs. them” mentalities.

    Economic Competition and conflict

    1961 Jabalpur Riots due to competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi entrepreneurs

    Conflicts over resources are given a communal color to mobilize support quickly. Eg- Moplah revolt of 1921 by Mapilla muslims against muslim landlords

    Majoritarianism- fear among minorities of suppression of their language or traditions by a secular or majority culture. Eg- portest against triple talaq.

    Educational Mismatch- illiteracy and unemployment among youth makes them susceptible to communal outfits that offer a sense of identity and purpose. Eg- Burhan Vani

    Migration and fear of demographic change- Native populations feel deprived of jobs by “outsiders.” Eg- Communal tensions in Assam due to migration of Bangladeshi muslims

    Way Forward

    Implementing the Prakash Singh Directives to ensure the police act as an impartial force during tensions

    Implementing recommendations of the Amitabh Kundu Committee to ensure development reaches the “bottom-most” layers of all communities.

    Civic Integration (Ashutosh Varshney) through mixed-religion residential societies and business associations to act as a buffer against riots.

    Regulating Hate Speech- Strict enforcement of MCC during elections.

    Community Policing- Scaling models like Mohalla Committees (Mumbai).

    Establishing Fast Track Courts to ensure timely persecution of perpetrators of riot

    Inclusive development policies and ethical political leadership are needed to ensure that power competition does not fracture social cohesion and deprivation does not become a communal grievance.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    The Aspirational Districts Programme, is aimed at transforming 112 most under-developed districts. It shifts the development narrative from “backwardness” to “aspiration,” focusing on localized governance rather than a top-down approach.

    Core Strategies for Transformation of Aspirational Districts

    Thematic Weightage- Health & Nutrition (30%), Education (30%), Agriculture & Water (20%), Financial Inclusion & Skill Dev (10%), and Basic Infrastructure (10%).

    Outcome-Based Governance – Progress is measured through 49 KPIs

    Evidence-Based Policy- Third-party surveys (by agencies like IDinsight and Tata Trusts) validate data to ensure transparency.

    District-Centric Planning – Empowering District Collectors to customize interventions.

    Appointing Prabhari Officers- Senior Central and State officials act as mentors to bridge the gap between policy and implementation.

    Real-Time Monitoring through “Champions of Change” Dashboard

    Human Capital Focus – Eg- Reduction in malnutrition and school dropouts.

    Jan Andolan- Transformation is treated as a social movement, engaging citizens in schemes like Poshan Abhiyaan.

    Convergence

    Centre-State-District Alignment – Pooling resources and schemes. Eg- using MGNREGA labor to build schools under Samagra Shiksha.

    Inter-Departmental Coordination for breaking silos among line departments. Eg- Joint planning by health, women & child development, rural development.

    Financial and Administrative Convergence for optimal use of funds, avoiding duplication and plugging last-mile gaps.

    Collaboration

    Cooperative federalism- Prabhari officers (Centre) and Nodal officers (State) work as a single team

    Philanthropic Alliances- Partnerships with organizations like Piramal Foundation and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for technical support.

    Development Partners – Technical support and best practices. Eg- world Bank

    Competition

    Unique “delta ranking” system to promote healthy competition and transparent performance comparison.

    Incentive Grants- Top-performing districts receive additional financial rewards (up to â‚č10 crore).

    Peer Learning- Rankings encourage low-performing districts to study and replicate the “Best Practices”.

    Success of this model has paved the way for the Aspirational Blocks Programme, ensuring that the spirit of Convergence, Collaboration, and Competition reaches the last mile of Indian democracy.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    The IRNSS, operationally named NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), is India’s indigenous satellite navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation.

    Need of IRNSS/NavIC

    Strategic Autonomy – Dependence on foreign systems like GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), or Galileo (EU) poses security risks, as access can be denied during conflicts. Eg- During the Kargil War (1999), USA denied GPS data to India.

    Sovereignty over Navigation – Provides India independent and reliable Position, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) services over Indian territory and surrounding region.

    Regional Coverage – Covers India and a region extending 1,500 km beyond its borders, ensuring accurate navigation across South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.

    Civilian Applications – Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation; vehicle tracking; disaster management; mapping and geodetic surveys; mobile phone integration.

    Military Applications – Missile guidance, troop movement, naval operations, border surveillance.

    Economic Benefits – Supports precision agriculture, fisheries, transport logistics, and infrastructure development.

    How NavIC Helps in Navigation

    Constellation – 7 satellites (3 in Geostationary Orbit, 4 in Geosynchronous Orbit) provide continuous coverage over the Indian region.

    Dual Frequency – Operates on L5 and S-band, reducing errors caused by ionospheric delays and providing better accuracy than single-frequency systems.

    Accuracy – Provides position accuracy better than 20 metres in the primary service area and 10 metres for restricted (military) service.

    Two Services – Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for civilian use and Restricted Service (RS) for authorised users (military, strategic).

    Integration with international systems like GPS for enhanced accuracy and reliability.

    Fishermen Safety – Indian Space Research Organisation provides NavIC-based communication devices to fishermen for receiving emergency alerts and location-based services.

    NavIC represents India’s technological self-reliance in the strategic domain of satellite navigation, aligning with the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer:

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    Though 24.82 crore people escaped multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23, around 11.28% of the population still lives under poverty. (NITI Aayog)

    Various programmes for eradication of poverty

    MGNREGA- Wage employment.

    PMAY (G & U)- Housing for all.

    Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (Free food grains to 81 crore people).

    Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)- World’s largest health insurance scheme.

    DAY-NRLM- Self-help groups.

    PM-Jan Dhan Yojana- Financial inclusion and bank account access.

    Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)

    Reasons Behind the Persistence of Poverty

    Jobless growth due to shift from agriculture to service led growth instead of manufacturing led growth. Eg- service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs only 30% of workforce

    Corruption in PDS

    Ghost beneficiaries (10 lakh in Ayushman Bharat as per CAG)

    Inclusion and exclusion errors

    Low Agricultural Productivity-

    Employs nearly 45% of the workforce, but it contributes only ~17% to the GDP.

    Small and fragmented landholdings (86%) keep rural incomes at subsistence levels.

    Over 90% of the Indian workforce is in the informal sector – lack social security and stable wages, leading to “working poverty.”

    Social Stratification- Caste-based and gender-based discrimination.

    96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Women own only 13% of land while forming 63% of agriculture workforce

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in healthcare (40%) pushes “near-poor” families back into poverty.

    Rural-Urban divide – Poor access to quality education and vocational training limits employability.

    Regional disparities – BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators.

    To bridge the remaining gap and achieve SDG-1, the government must move from Welfare to Empowerment (Capability Building) model of development.

    (a)

    (b)

    (c)

    (d)

    Correct Answer: