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GS Paper: GS1

  • Why was there a sudden spurt in famines in colonial India since the mid-eighteenth century ? Give reasons.

    Under British rule, India experienced an unprecedented frequency of famines (31 major famines) leading to over 60 million deaths.

    Reasons for sudden spurt in famines in colonial India

    Commercialisation of agriculture – Shift from food crops to cash crops reduced local food availability. Eg- Expansion of indigo, cotton, and opium cultivation under Company pressure.

    Rigid land revenue systems with fixed and high revenue demands forced peasants to sell grain during scarcity.

    Collapse of handicrafts increased dependence on agriculture and reduced household resilience during crop failure.

    Disruption of traditional famine-coping mechanisms like community grain banks due to British policies.

    Free trade ideology (laissez-faire attitude) prioritised exports over local needs. Eg- Continued grain exports during famines like the Great Famine of 1876-78.

    Neglect of agricultural investment heightened vulnerability to monsoon failure. Eg- Limited irrigation outside canal colonies.

    Diversion of foodgrains for British soldiers during world war II led to over 3 million deaths during Bengal famine of 1943

    Role of Viceroys – Lord Lytton exported 320,000 tons of wheat to England during the Great Famine of 1876-1878

    Thus, spurt in famines was an “administrative and man-made” phenomenon. It underscores the critical role of the state in ensuring food security at present.

  • Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India.

    Thomas Friedman defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper. It has accelerated the diffusion of technology thereby enabling efficient use, substitution, and management of scarce resources.

    Relationship between globalisation and new technology

    New technologies reduce the constraints of distance, time, and cost.

    Efficient Resource Utilisation– Eg- Precision agriculture using satellite data and sensors to reduce water and fertiliser use.

    Shift from Resource-Intensive to Knowledge-Intensive Growth– Eg- India’s IT-ITeS sector generating exports with minimal material input compared to manufacturing.

    Global Diffusion of cleaner and resource-efficient technologies. Eg- Solar and wind technologies.

    Integration into Global Value Chains (GVCs) – Technology enables countries to specialise in specific stages of production. Eg- India as the pharmacy of the world.

    Resource constraints stimulate technological innovation for low-cost solutions for energy, healthcare, and mobility. Eg- telemedicine under eSanjeevani

    The Circular Economy- Globalization facilitates the trade of “waste-as-resource” across borders.

    Exposure to global markets compels efficiency and innovation. Eg- Indian manufacturing adopting automation and Industry 4.0 to remain competitive.

    Technology for Resource Governance– GIS, remote sensing, and digital dashboards used for water management and climate action in India.

    Collaborative R&D- globalization pools global intellect. Eg- ITER project for nuclear fusion involving the EU, US, India, and China.

    Negative Impacts

    Unsustainable Extraction of mineral resources- Eg- Massive Lithium mining in South America to fuel the global EV boom.

    E-Waste Accumulation- Eg- Humanity produces 62 million tonnes of electronic waste every year.

    Technological Imperialism- Eg- Disputes over “Intellectual Property Rights” (IPR) for high-efficiency carbon-capture tech.

    Carbon Footprint of Logistics- Eg- global shipping and aviation account for ~10% of CO2 emissions.

    Digital Divide- Access to tech itself becomes a “scarce resource.” Eg- Only 40% of the Global South having access to 5G.

    Global competition for resources leading to conflicts

    China’s weaponization of rare earth supply chains.

    US attempt to take over Greenland

    Obsolescence by Design- Tech firms globally produce short-lived products to drive sales, wasting minerals. Eg- Smartphones designed with non-replaceable batteries.

    Labor Exploitation for Resources- Eg- Child labor in Cobalt mines in the DRC.

    Impact on India

    For India, the path forward lies in “Frugal Innovation” to ensure that the digital revolution does not come at the cost of the environment.

  • Describing the distribution of rubber producing countries, indicate the major environmental issues faced by them.

    Natural rubber is a tropical plantation crop that requires high temperature (25°-35°C), heavy rainfall (>200 cm), and well-drained lateritic soils. Its production is highly concentrated in the humid equatorial and tropical monsoon regions.

    Distribution of Rubber Producing Countries

    Approximately 85-90% of the world’s natural rubber is produced in Asia, primarily by smallholders (plantations under 4 hectares).

    Southeast Asia

    Thailand- The world’s leading producer with 32-36% of global supply.

    Indonesia- The second-largest producer (~22% share)

    Other countries – Vietnam and Malaysia

    West Africa

    Ivory Coast- 4th largest global producer (over 1.3 million tonnes)

    Others- Nigeria, Ghana, and Liberia etc

    India- production is centered in Kerala and the North-East.

    Other Producers

    China – Yunnan and Hainan Island.

    Latin America – Brazil (original home of Hevea brasiliensis).

    Major Environmental Issues

    Deforestation- Since 2000, over 4 million hectares of tropical forest in Southeast Asia have been cleared for rubber.

    Forest-to-plantation land-use change increase carbon emissions

    Loss of Biodiversity due to monoculture. Eg- Decline of wildlife habitats in Southeast Asia.

    Water Stress- Rubber trees have high evapotranspiration rates, leading to depletion of local aquifers.

    Soil Degradation – Continuous monocropping reduces soil fertility and increases erosion on slopes. Eg- Rubber plantations in hilly tracts of Kerala.

    Effluent Pollution- discharge from small-scale processing units leads to high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and ammonia levels in nearby rivers.

    Habitat Fragmentation leading to human-wildlife Conflict. Eg- Elephant habitat loss in Kerala.

    Climate Change Vulnerability – Rising global temperatures (the “28°C threshold”) and erratic rainfall are making traditional regions less viable.

    Disease Proliferation – Monocultures are highly susceptible to pathogens like Circular Leaf Spot and White Root Rot

    Adoption of sustainable rubber agroforestry, intercropping, and landscape-level land-use planning is essential to reconcile economic benefits with ecological stability. Programs like the Global Platform for Sustainable Natural Rubber (GPSNR) are pushing for “Deforestation-Free” supply chains.

  • Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify your answer.

    Secularism in the Indian context implies a “principled distance”, ensuring freedom of conscience while upholding constitutional morality, equality, and public order.

    Key Elements of Indian Secularism

    Tolerance

    Historical coexistence of faiths – Eg- Coexistence of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism over centuries.

    Constitutional protection – Freedom to profess, practice, and propagate religion under Articles 25 reflects tolerance towards different religious practices

    Sarva Dharma Sambhava remains the philosophical bedrock of Indian secularism, ensuring no single religion is prioritized.

    Article 51A (f)- Mandates a Fundamental Duty to “value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.”

    India’s history of sheltering persecuted communities (Parsis, Jews, Tibetans) highlights civilizational tolerance.

    Assimilation

    Cultural assimilation through syncretism – Eg- Bhakti-Sufi traditions blending devotional practices.

    Rejection of forced assimilation – Eg- protection to cultural practices of tribals under 6th schedule

    Linguistic Assimilation- Eighth Schedule reflects an assimilation of Sanskrit, and regional dialects.

    Architecture and Art- The Indo-Islamic style (Taj Mahal, Red Fort) is a physical manifestation of the assimilation of two distinct cultural worlds.

    Only practices violating equality and dignity are reformed. Eg- Abolition of untouchability under Article 17.

    Pluralism as the core principle

    Recognition of diversity as intrinsic – Eg- Legal recognition of multiple personal laws.

    Indian secularism emphasizes principled distance (Rajeev Bhargava) rather than equidistance. Eg- State support for pilgrimages.

    Article 29 & 30- Provides the “Right of Minorities” to establish and administer educational institutions, protecting their distinct language, script, or culture.

    Religious Denominations (Article 26)- Grants every religious group the right to manage their own affairs in matters of religion.

    National holidays on festivals of all religions. Eg- diwali, eid etc

    Other Aspects of Indian Secularism

    Reformatory Justice- state can intervene in religion to ban harmful practices like Sati, or Triple Talaq.

    State Funding to religious schools as long as they meet secular educational standards.

    Substantive Equality- It focuses on equality between religious groups as much as equality within them.

    Practiced as principled neutrality with respect for pluralism, Indian secularism protects both cultural practices and constitutional values.

  • Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a single category ?

    India’s 110 million tribal population (8.6%) comprise over 705 distinct ethnic groups. However, they are legally and politically unified under the category of “Scheduled Tribes” (STs).

    Diversities Among Tribal Communities in India

    Ethnic and Racial – Negrito (Andamanese) and Proto-Australoid (Central Indian tribes) to Mongoloid (Northeast tribes).

    Modes of Subsistence- Hunter-Gatherers (Sentinels), Pastoralists (Toda), Shifting Cultivators (Jhumias of Mizoram), Settled Agriculturists (Meenas of).

    Geographical Dispersion- arid deserts of Rajasthan (Bhils), high Himalayas (Gaddis), tropical rainforests of the Andamans.

    Social Organization- Matrilineal societies of Meghalaya (Khasis, Garos), Patrilineal systems of Central India.

    Religious Beliefs- Sarnaism (nature worship), Christianity (Northeast), Buddhism (Ladakh), or Hinduism (Central India).

    Demographic Scale- Gonds and Bhils number in millions, PVTGs like the Great Andamanese fewer than 50 members.

    Educational Attainment- nearly 90% in Mizoram to less than 30% among PVTGs in Chhattisgarh.

    Specific contexts where tribes can be considered as a single category

    Political Representation and Voice – limited representation in “cabinet” as well as in administration. Eg- less than 5% SC/ST at secretary level

    Constitutional and Legal Safeguards – Unified recognition as Scheduled Tribes for protective discrimination. Eg- Fifth and Sixth Schedule, reservations in education, employment, and legislatures.

    Administrative Planning and Resource Allocation – Eg- Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP)

    Historical Experience of Marginalisation – Shared legacy of colonial forest policies, land alienation, and erosion of autonomy.

    Structural Economic Deprivation – Common patterns of poverty, livelihood insecurity, and dependence on primary resources.

    Human Development Deficits – Similar disadvantages in nutrition, health, and education indicators at the aggregate level.

    Vulnerability to Displacement and Development Projects – Disproportionate impact of mining, dams, and conservation projects on tribal regions.

    Social Exclusion and Discrimination – Limited access to education, healthcare, markets, and political institutions across regions.

    Ecological and Livelihood Linkages – Shared dependence on forests, land, and commons for survival. Eg- shifting cultivation

    Implementing SC judgment on sub-categorization (Davinder Singh case) can help avoid over-homogenisation and one-size-fits for all approach

  • Discuss the main contributions of Gupta period and Chola period to Indian heritage and culture.

    The Gupta period (320-550 CE) is referred to as the Golden Age of India. Similarly, in the words of James Fergusson, “the Chola artists (9th-13th century CE) conceived like giants and finished like jewellers.”

    Main Contributions of the Gupta Period

    Religion and Philosophy

    Compilation and codification of Puranas and epics strengthened Brahmanical traditions. Eg- Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana.

    Vaishnavism and Shaivism received royal patronage, while Buddhism and Jainism continued to flourish.

    Literature

    Classical Sanskrit literature reached its zenith. Eg- Kalidasa’s Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha.

    Secular works like Panini’s grammar (Ashtadhyayi) and Vishnu Sharma’s Panchatantra gained prominence.

    Science and Medicine

    Significant advances in Ayurveda. Eg- Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita were compiled and systematised.

    Progress in astronomy. Eg- Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya explaining earth’s rotation.

    Mathematics

    The concept of zero and decimal systems was developed. Eg- Works of Aryabhata and Varahamihira.

    Architecture

    Cave architecture reached artistic maturity. Eg- Ajanta, Bagh, and Udayagiri caves.

    Development of Nagaram style of temple architecture. Eg- Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh.

    Early use of brick temples.

    Sculpture

    Emergence of Sarnath School of Sculpture, noted for cream-coloured sandstone and spiritual expression. Eg- Sarnath Buddha image.

    Painting – Ajanta paintings depicting Jataka tales using fresco-tempera technique.

    Pillars and Inscriptions

    Pillar inscriptions reflected political ideals and administrative practices. Eg- Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta.

    Continued development of Buddhist stupas. Eg- Chaukhandi Stupa, Sarnath.

    Contributions of the Chola Period

    Temple Architecture

    Zenith of Dravidian temple architecture with monumental vimanas. Eg- Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

    Temples served as religious, economic, and cultural centres.

    Sculpture – Excellence in bronze casting using lost-wax technique. Eg- Nataraja bronze of Shiva, symbolising cosmic rhythm.

    Religion and Bhakti Tradition

    Consolidation of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Eg- Patronage to Nayanars and Alvars.

    Bhakti became an instrument of social integration. Eg- Saints like Appar, Sundarar.

    Administration and Local Self-Government

    Highly developed village self-government. Eg- Kudavolai system recorded in Uttaramerur inscriptions.

    Social and Cultural Life

    Society organised around occupational and regional identities. Eg- Kurinji (hunting communities) associated with Murugan worship.

    Maritime Trade and Cultural Expansion

    Strong naval power and overseas trade. Eg- Cultural influence in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

    Together, they enriched India’s heritage with unity, diversity, and continuity, whose influence continues to shape Indian culture even today.

  • Discuss the natural resource potentials of ‘Deccan Trap’.

    The Deccan Trap is one of the largest volcanic basalt provinces in the world, formed by massive lava flows during the late Cretaceous period. It covers nearly 5 lakh sq km across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and Telangana.

    Natural Resource Potentials of the Deccan Trap

    Black Cotton Soil (Regur)

    Formed due to weathering of basaltic rocks.

    Its high clay content and moisture-retention capacity make it ideal for rain-fed agriculture.

    Supports India’s primary Cotton, Sugarcane, and Soybean belts in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

    Bauxite Reserves (Aluminum Ore) formed due to intensive chemical weathering (lateritization) of basalt in high-rainfall zones. Eg- Kolhapur and Ratnagiri Belt.

    Geothermal Energy Potential-Eg- Clusters of hot springs in Unhavare, Tural, and Rajapur along the Konkan coast.

    Multi-Layered Aquifer Systems-The vesicular (porous) and fractured nature of certain lava flows allows for significant groundwater storage.

    Hydrocarbon-Recent seismic surveys have indicated the presence of oil and natural gas trapped beneath the thick basaltic “lid.” Eg- in the Cambay Basin (Gujarat).

    Strategic Industrial Minerals like Zeolites are formed in the cavities (vugs) of basalt.

    Semi-Precious Gemstones-Eg- Agates, Amethyst, and Chalcedony

    The varying rainfall patterns across the plateau support diverse forest types, from moist evergreen to dry deciduous. Eg- Teak and Bamboo.

    Hydroelectric Power-The steep escarpments (Western Ghats) provide high-head sites for power generation. Eg- Koyna Hydroelectric Project

    Major Challenges

    Over-extraction of Groundwater

    Soil Degradation & Salinity in the sugarcane belt

    Seismic Vulnerability-Eg- 1967 Koyna and 1993 Latur earthquakes

    Eco-Sensitivity-Eg- mining in Western Ghats

    Technological Barriers in Exploration-Eg- High costs of Sub-basalt Imaging.

    Pollution from Industrial Clusters-Eg- Dust pollution in Navi Mumbai and Pune

    Sustainable management is essential to harness these potentials while ensuring long-term environmental stability and regional development.

  • What are the forces that influence ocean currents? Describe their role in fishing industry of the world.

    Ocean currents are continuous, directed movements of seawater generated by a combination of physical, climatic, and planetary forces. They regulate heat distribution, nutrient circulation, marine productivity, and global climate.

    Forces Influencing Ocean Currents

    Solar Energy- Differential heating at the equator causes water to expand and rise slightly, creating a gradient that initiates water flow. Eg- Gulf Stream transporting warm water to Europe.

    Temperature Gradients- Cold water is denser and sinks, while warm water is lighter and rises, driving vertical circulation.

    Planetary winds – Trade winds and westerlies drive surface currents. Eg- North Equatorial Current driven by trade winds.

    Coriolis Force- Earth’s rotation deflects moving water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere, forming massive circular Gyres.

    Salinity Variations- High salt content increases water density. The interplay of temperature and salt creates the Thermohaline Circulation (The Global Conveyor Belt).

    Continental Configuration- Landmasses deflect currents. Eg- the Brazilian coast bifurcates the Atlantic South Equatorial Current.

    Gravitational pull of Moon and Sun – Generates tidal currents. Eg- Strong tidal currents in Bay of Fundy.

    Ocean basin topography – Submarine ridges and basins redirect flows. Eg- Mid-Atlantic Ridge influencing deep circulation.

    Atmospheric pressure systems – Cyclones and anticyclones alter local currents. Eg- Seasonal reversal in Indian Ocean currents.

    Role of ocean currents in the fishing industry

    Convergence of warm and cold currents – Enhances plankton growth. Eg- Grand Banks (Labrador + Gulf Stream).

    Nutrient redistribution – Currents spread plankton across oceans. Eg- North Sea fisheries supported by Atlantic Drift.

    Temperature regulation – Determines species distribution. Eg- Tuna migration along warm Kuroshio Current.

    Oxygenation of waters – Supports marine biodiversity. Eg- Upwelling off Namibia (Benguela Current).

    Transport of fish larvae – Currents aid breeding and dispersal. Eg- Japanese fisheries influenced by Oyashio Current.

    Formation of rich continental shelf fisheries – Interaction of currents with shallow waters. Eg- Dogger Bank in the North Sea.

    Climate moderation for fishing communities – Eg- Gulf Stream moderating European coasts.

    Fishermen follow current-driven seasonal fish migration patterns. Eg- Monsoon-linked fishing cycles in Arabian Sea.

    El Niño impacts – Disrupts upwelling and fish stocks. Eg- Collapse of Peruvian fisheries during strong El Niño years.

    Climate variability and disruptions like El Niño increasingly threaten these systems, highlighting the need for sustainable and climate-resilient fisheries management.

  • Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion.

    In Indian society, sect refers to a religious-spiritual subgroup organised around a shared doctrine, deity, guru, or ritual practice. Unlike caste, region, and religion, which are largely ascriptive identities, sects are voluntary and belief-based.

    Salience of Sect in Indian Society

    Sect vis-a-vis Caste

    Transcending caste boundaries – Eg- Bhakti sects like Kabir Panth rejecting caste distinctions.

    Alternative social identity – Provides dignity to marginalised castes. Eg- Ravidassia sect among Dalits.

    Avenue for Social Mobility- Eg- Many lower-caste groups in North India joined the Arya Samaj to gain social respectability through Vedic education.

    Sects bridge the divide between different castes by focusing on a shared devotion to a guru or deity.

    However, caste infiltration persists. Eg- Vaishnava sects dominated by upper castes in leadership roles.

    Sect vis-a-vis Religion

    Sub-religious pluralism – Sects allow diversity within a single religion.

    Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakti and Smartism within Hinduism

    Sunni-Shia within Islam.

    Himayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana within Buddhism

    Digambara and swetambara within Jainism

    Personalised spirituality – Emphasis on devotion rather than dogma. Eg- Bhakti and Sufi sects focusing on bhakti and ishq.

    Instrument of reform – Challenges orthodoxy and ritualism. Eg- Buddhism and Jainism emerging as sect-like reform movements.

    Charismatic Leadership (Guru-Cults) – sects are often centered around a living or historical spiritual guide. Eg- Raja Rammohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj)

    Sectarian identity can sometimes create friction. Eg- Friction between Thenkalai and Vadakalai sects over the prayers offered at the Sri Devarajaswamy Temple in Kanchipuram.

    Modern “New Age” sects help urbanites reconnect with their religion in a contemporary, simplified way. Eg- ISKCON (Hare Krishna movement)

    Sect vis-a-vis Region

    Regional localisation of sects – Sects adapt to local languages and cultures. Eg- Varkari sect in Maharashtra, Lingayat sect in Karnataka.

    Cultural integration – Sect strengthens regional identity while retaining pan-Indian appeal. Eg- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s Vaishnavism in Bengal.

    Sect builds social cohesion and strong community bonds within a region. Eg- Sikh Panth.

    Sect as a tool of political and social mobilization within a specific region. Eg- Lingayat movement seeking minority religion status.

    The sect occupies a unique intermediate position in Indian society, less rigid than caste, more flexible than religion, and more fluid than region. It has played a crucial role in spiritual democratisation and social cohesion.

  • Why did the armies of the British East India Company – mostly comprising of Indian soldiers-win consistently against the more numerous and better equipped armies of the then Indian rulers ? Give reasons.

    The expansion of the British East India Company was a triumph of institutional organization over feudalism.

    Major wins of the British East India Company army

    Battle of Plassey (1757)

    Battle of Buxar (1764)

    Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799)

    Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818)

    Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849)

    Reasons behind consistent wins of British East India company army

    Political Factors

    Fragmented Indian polity – Eg- Marathas, Nizam, and Awadh failed to form a sustained anti-British alliance.

    Diplomacy – Company isolated enemies before military confrontation. Eg- Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance system neutralised Indian rulers politically.

    Economic Factors

    Superior financial resources – Eg- Diwani rights (1765) funded continuous military expansion.

    Commercial-military synergy – Trade profits sustained long wars without fiscal collapse.

    Technological Factors

    Standardised firearms and artillery – Eg- Effective use of field artillery at Buxar overwhelmed numerically superior forces of Awadh, Mughal, and Bengal Nawab.

    Military innovations – Better logistics, military engineering, and disciplined infantry formations.

    Leadership and Organisation

    Professional military leadership – Officers trained in European warfare doctrines. Eg- Clive and Eyre Coote employed coordinated infantry-artillery tactics.

    Unified command structure – Clear hierarchy ensured swift decision-making unlike feudal Indian armies.

    Social Divisions within Indian Armies

    Feudal composition of Indian forces – Loyalty based on personal allegiance, not the state. Eg- Defection of Mir Jafar at Plassey.

    Caste and regional divisions – Eg- Mahar regiment fighting against Peshwa army in Anglo-Maratha wars

    Ideological and Psychological Factors

    Absence of nationalism – Indian soldiers fought for rulers, not a national cause.

    Company’s corporate discipline – Soldiers motivated by regular pay, promotion, and military professionalism.

    The European conquest of India was not just a conquest of territory but a conquest of the Indian soul, changing the very ethos of Indian society.” – Rabindranath Tagore

    Section Specific