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GS Paper: GS1

  • Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    Reasons behind fluidity of caste system

    Sanskritization Mobility Process: Lower castes alter domestic customs and dietary rituals to mimic higher castes for upward mobility.

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Notions of purity and pollution have weakened. Eg- Inter-caste dining in urban areas is common

    Occupational Mobility – Caste-occupation linkage has diluted. Eg- Dalits and OBCs in IT, civil services, academia.

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and mixed social spaces. Eg- Cosmopolitan life in metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru.

    Legal and Constitutional Framework has established equality before law irrespective of caste hierarchy. Eg- Article 14 and Article 17.

    Rise of Individualism – Personal choice gaining prominence over ascriptive identity. Eg- Love marriages, nuclear families.

    Growth of Class-Based Stratification in urban settings. Eg- rise of dalit and OBC Middle Class

    Democratic Electoral Mobilization: Sub-castes merge into political interest blocks, completely altering traditional micro-level hierarchies. Eg: AJGAR alliance in northern India

    Reasons behind static nature of caste identity

    Caste remains a basis for welfare and representation. Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Occupational hierarchies along caste lines. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Social Discrimination along caste lines persists. Eg- Hatras rape case or Rohith Vemula death.

    Intersectionality – Caste intersects with gender, religion, and region. Eg- Dalit women facing multiple marginalities.

    New associational forms. Eg- Maratha Kranti Morcha, Patidar Anamat Andolan.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Caste-Based Spatial Segregation (Ghettoization) in modern cities

    Inter-generational Wealth Gap – The Oxfam Inequality Report (2024) highlights that the average wealth of a General Category family is nearly triple that of a Dalit family.

    Understanding contemporary India therefore requires recognising caste not as a static relic, but as a dynamic and evolving social reality operating alongside class, gender, religion, and region.

    Population and Migration

  • Does urbanization lead to more segregation and/or marginalization of the poor in Indian metropolises?

    40% of India’s population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2030 (NITI Aayog). However, this growth has often been uneven and exclusionary rather than inclusive.

    Urbanization Leading to Segregation and Marginalization

    Arguments In Favor

    Gated Communities – Eg- separate elevators and entryways for domestic staff.

    Infrastructure-Induced Displacement (Gentrification)- Eg- Dharavi redevelopment project

    “Ghettoization”– systematic exclusion of low-income groups from the social, economic, and physical benefits of the city. Eg- 17% urban population lives in slums

    Limited access to basic amenities like health and education.

    Low-productivity equilibrium – Cities continue to absorb labour, but governance systems fail to integrate workers into formal housing, transport and service networks. (Economic Survey 2025-26)

    Persistence of Caste-Based Segregation- Eg- denial of rental housing to Dalits and Muslims

    The “Poverty Tax”- Eg- Slum dwellers in Pune pay up to 20% more for water per liter than those with piped municipal connections in nearby societies.

    Exclusionary Urban Planning – Master plans prioritise commercial and elite residential zones.

    Social Stigma – Slums viewed as illegal or undesirable spaces.

    Gendered Marginalization – Poor women face compounded exclusion in cities. Eg- Insecure work, unsafe transport, and lack of childcare.

    Arguments Against

    Urban Anonymity – Reduced rigidity of caste and kinship controls.

    Social Mobility- meritocratic nature of cities allow youth from lower strata to bypass traditional social barriers and achieve rapid upward mobility.

    Gig Economy- Platforms like Zepto, Swiggy, and Urban Company provide immediate employment for low-skilled migrants.

    Entrepreneurial Opportunities – Eg- Street vending

    Political Visibility – Urban concentration enables mobilisation. Eg- Slum dwellers’ associations

    Targeted Urban Welfare Schemes to mitigate exclusion. Eg- PM Awas Yojana (Urban), PM SVANidhi

    Way Forward

    Scaling ‘SAHAYOG’ initiative of Odisha government at Pan India level

    Inclusive urban planning with affordable housing near workplaces

    In-situ slum upgrading instead of peripheral relocation

    Universal access to basic services

    Affordable mass transport systems

    With rights-based, inclusive, and people-centric urban policies, cities can instead become spaces of opportunity, dignity, and upward mobility for the urban poor.

  • Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries.

    Food security refers to a situation where all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food (FAO).

    According to the 2025 Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC), over 295 million people faced acute hunger last year, with climate extremes being a primary driver.

    Consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries

    Decline in Crop Yields – Eg- rice and wheat yields in South Asia may decline by 10-20% by 2050 due to warming.

    Increased Frequency of Droughts affects rain-fed agriculture. Eg- Horn of Africa droughts have caused repeated crop failures and food shortages.

    Extreme Weather Events – Damage to crops and agricultural infrastructure. Eg- flood damage to paddy fields in Bangladesh.

    Heat Stress on Crops reduce photosynthesis and crop growth. Eg- Maize yields in tropical Africa and Latin America are projected to decline by up to 24% by 2030 if current warming trends persist.

    Decline in Fisheries – Eg- Tropical reef-based fisheries in Indonesia and the Philippines have seen a 20% decline in catch potential since 2020 due to coral bleaching.

    Spread of Crop Pests and Diseases – Warmer climates favour pest outbreaks. Eg- 2025-26 Locust swarms in the Horn of Africa and South Asia have devastated over 200,000 hectares of farmland.

    Loss of Arable Land due to sea-level rise and salinisation. Eg- saltwater intrusion in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta impacting rice paddies.

    Reduced Nutritional Quality of Crops – Elevated CO₂ may reduce nutrient content in staples. Eg- declining protein and micronutrient levels in rice and wheat.

    Livestock Productivity Decline – Heat stress affects animal health and milk production.

    Food Price Volatility and Poverty – Climate shocks disrupt supply chains and raise food prices.

    Heatwaves are disrupting the synchronization between flowering plants and their pollinators. Eg- decline in native bee populations in Brazil impacting the yields of high-value tropical fruits and nuts.

    Soil Degradation and Erosion-Intense tropical storms strip away the nutrient-rich topsoil (humus), leading to long-term infertility.

    Way Forward

    Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)- Promoting integrated systems that increase productivity and resilience while reducing emissions.

    Diversification of Cropping Systems – Promoting millets, pulses and climate-resilient crops.

    Development of Heat-Tolerant Varieties- Investing in “Scuba Rice” (flood-tolerant) and drought-resistant C4 crops like millets and sorghum.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)- Implementing “Sponge Farm” techniques to capture monsoon runoff and recharge groundwater for dry spells.

    Agroforestry and Intercropping- Planting nitrogen-fixing trees alongside crops to provide shade, improve soil moisture, and diversify income.

    Strengthening Cold Chains- Investing in solar-powered refrigerated storage and hermetic bags to reduce post-harvest spoilage.

    Promoting Crop Insurance- Scaling up “Weather-Index Based Insurance” to protect farmers against total financial collapse after a climate disaster.

    Circular Food Systems- Reducing food waste and converting agricultural by-products into biogas or organic fertilizers.

    International Climate Finance- Ensuring that the Loss and Damage Fund (operationalized at COP28/29) is accessible to tropical nations for rebuilding food systems.

    Tropical countries are the “frontline states” in the war against climate-induced hunger. A global commitment to limit warming to 1.5^ C and a radical shift from “exploitative” to “regenerative” food systems is needed.

  • What was the difference between Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore in their approach towards education and nationalism?

    Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore were towering thinkers of modern India who shared a commitment to freedom, yet differed significantly in their visions of India’s engagement with modernity.

    Difference between Gandhi and Tagore on EDUCATION

    Difference Between Gandhi and Tagore on NATIONALISM

    Similarities

    Commitment to India’s Freedom – Eg- Tagore renounced his British knighthood (1919)

    Both believed politics must be guided by moral values. Eg- Gandhi’s satya and ahimsa and Tagore’s humanist ethics.

    Critique of Blind Westernisation

    Both saw education as central to societal transformation.

    Both valued India’s spiritual and cultural heritage. Eg- Use of Indian symbols by Gandhi and revival of Indian art, music, and literature by Tagore.

    Opposition to Violence and Militarism

    Concern for Social Harmony – Both sought unity across caste, religion, and region.

    Despite differences in method, Gandhi and Tagore converged in their ethical vision, making them complementary architects of modern Indian thought.

  • Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian Society.

    India accounts for approximately 37% of global female suicide deaths. It is now the leading cause of death for Indian women aged 15-39.

    Causes Behind Increasing Suicide Among Young Women

    Housewives – over 50% of suicides

    Marriage-related pressures and domestic violence

    social isolation, lack of economic agency, and the “unseen” nature of domestic labor

    Students

    Academic and career stress – Rising aspirations without sufficient support. Eg- Student suicides in Kota.

    Inadequate counselling facilities in schools, colleges, and hostels.

    Working women

    Cyberbullying and Online harassment culture affect self-worth. Eg- Trolling, non-consensual sharing of images.

    Workplace discrimination and sexual harassment

    Social causes

    Intersectional vulnerabilities – Caste, class, and rural disadvantage intensify distress. Eg- Dalit and rural women

    Patriarchal control – Restrictions on mobility, education, and choice generate helplessness. Eg- Family opposition to inter-caste or inter-faith relationships.

    Child Marriages – 23% women are married before 18 (NFHS-5) – exposes them to abusive relationship

    Weak institutional support systems –

    Mental health neglect and stigma – Depression and anxiety often go undiagnosed and untreated.

    India has 0.75 psychiatrist per 1 lakh people (global avg – 13)

    Way Forward

    Implementation of National Suicide Prevention Strategy to reduce suicide mortality by 10% by 2030.

    WHO’s “LIVE LIFE” Approach- limiting access to means , responsible media reporting to prevent “copycat” suicides, and fostering life skills in adolescents.

    Training “frontline” community members like ASHA workers to identify early warning signs and providing counselling.

    Implementing Saha Guidelines for preventing student suicide

    Integrating “Cyber-Safety” and mental health resilience into the school curriculum.

    Workplace Wellness Mandates- Eg- POSH workshops and mental health support

    As highlighted by World Health Organization, suicide is preventable through timely intervention and supportive environments.

  • How did the colonial rule affect the tribals in India and what was the tribal response to the colonial oppression?

    Colonial rule profoundly altered tribal life by disrupting their autonomy, economy, culture, and customary institutions, leading to sustained resistance across India.

    Impact of colonial rule on tribals

    Political Impact

    Loss of political autonomy – Expansion of colonial authority into previously autonomous regions. Eg- Displacement of Munda chiefs in Chotanagpur.

    Undermining of tribal leadership – Authority of headmen replaced by colonial officials. Eg- Appointment of British-appointed diwans in tribal tracts.

    Criminal Tribes Act (1871)- Many nomadic and forest tribes were branded as “hereditary criminals” by birth, leading to their police harassment and forced settlement.

    Economic Impact

    Land alienation – Introduction of private property eroded communal ownership. Eg- Transfer of tribal land to moneylenders in Chotanagpur.

    Exploitative forest policies – Restrictions on grazing, shifting cultivation, and forest produce
    under Indian Forest Acts of 1865 and 1878.

    Indebtedness and exploitation by traders and mahajans. Eg- dikus in Santhal regions

    Forced labour in plantations and mines. Eg- in Assam tea plantations.

    Social Impact

    Disruption of traditional social structures – Breakdown of clan-based systems.

    Imposition of alien legal systems – Customary law replaced by British civil and criminal law.

    Suppression of customary practices linked to forests and land. Eg- Criminalisation of shifting cultivation.

    Missionary activities and forced conversions among tribals Eg- Resistance to Christian missionaries among Mundas and Oraons.

    Tribal response to colonial oppression

    Legal and Institutional Response

    Petitions and Memorandums- Some tribes initially sought redress through official channels. Eg- early phases of the Kol Mutiny.

    Demand for separate administration – Eg- Creation of Santhal Parganas as a separate district.

    Revolutionary and Armed Resistance

    Mass armed uprisings – Violent resistance against colonial rule and intermediaries. Eg- Santhal Rebellion (1855-56).

    Leader-centric movements – Mobilisation under charismatic leaders. Eg- Birsa Munda’s Ulgulan (1899-1900).

    Resistance to revenue and forest laws – Attacks on symbols of colonial authority. Eg- Kol Uprising (1831-32).

    Rampa Rebellion (1922-24)- Alluri Sitarama Raju led a guerrilla war in the Eastern Ghats against the Madras Forest Act.

    Participation in National Movement (Non-Violent Response)

    Tana Bhagat Movement (1914)- Jatra Bhagat used “satyagraha” against British and zamindars

    During the Civil Disobedience Movement, tribes in Central Provinces and Karnataka organized “Forest Satyagrahas” to defy grazing and timber laws.

    Quit India Movement- Tribal leaders like Lakshman Nayak in Odisha mobilized their communities.

    Zeliangrong Movement- Under Rani Gaidinliu in the Northeast, the movement transitioned from a socio-religious reform to a political struggle for Indian independence.

    The colonial experience of exploitation shaped post-independence tribal policy, reflected in Nehru’s Tribal Panchsheel

    Respect for tribal culture,

    Protection of land rights

    Minimal administrative interference

    Development without cultural destruction

    Movement Specific

  • Do you think marriage as a sacrament in losing its value in Modern India?

    Traditionally, marriage in India has been viewed as a sacrament, symbolising a lifelong, sacred, and indissoluble bond. However, social change has led to a re-evaluation of this sacramental character.

    Marriage as a sacrament losing its value

    The increasing legal and social acceptance of divorce contradicts the sacramental view of marriage as an “eternal union.”

    Decline in the role of family in marital decisions highlights the changing nature of marriage from “duty” to personal choice.

    Rising median age of marriage for women (NFHS-5) highlights preference for education and careers over marriage

    Shift toward “Symmetrical Families” – Traditional hierarchy (Husband as God/Pati-Parmeshwar) is being replaced by egalitarian partnerships. Eg- rise in “dual income” households

    Emergence of Live-in Relationships – The growing preference for cohabitation without religious rituals directly bypasses the sacramental requirement.

    Economic Independence of Women – As per Leela Dube, as women gain property rights and careers, they prioritize “self-respect” over the “sacramental duty” to remain in dysfunctional marriages.

    “De-ritualization” (Yogendra Singh) – Marriage has shifted from a religious rite to a “Big Fat Indian Wedding” focused on conspicuous consumption.

    Commercialization of marriage. Eg- rise of matchmaking sites like shaadi.com

    However, sacramental value still persists

    Continued Importance of Rituals – Eg- Performance of saptapadi, mangalsutra, kanyadaan.

    Persistence of endogamy and arranged marriages

    Marriage remains a key marker of adulthood. Eg- Social pressure to marry across regions.

    Despite the increase, divorce remains low compared to global standards.

    Marriage is still valued as the foundation of family and society.

    The sacramental view is still strong in rural and semi-urban areas.

    Reinterpretation Rather than Rejection – Eg- Love marriages solemnised with traditional rituals.

    SC’s decision to not recognise “same sex marriages” (Supriyo v. Union of India) highlight sacramental value of marriage

    Marriage as a pure sacrament is undergoing transformation in modern India, but it is not losing its value entirely. As Yogendra Singh suggests, we are witnessing a “Modernization of Tradition.”

  • Why is the world today confronted with a crisis of availability of and access to freshwater resources?

    In January 2026, United Nations scientists formally declared the dawn of an “Era of Global Water Bankruptcy,” signaling that the world has exceeded its renewable hydrological limits.

    Reasons for the Crisis of Availability

    Limited availability of freshwater – only 2% of global water resources are freshwater. 87% stored in glaciers.

    Melting “Water Towers”-Eg- low-latitude mountain ranges have lost over 30% of their glacier mass since 1970, threatening the perennial flow of rivers like the Indus and Yangtze.

    Hydrological Volatility-Climate change has intensified the water cycle, leading to “flash droughts” and “extreme precipitation.”

    Chronic Groundwater Over-extraction-Agriculture and industry are “mining” water faster than the earth can replenish it.

    Water Quality Degradation-Over 80% of global wastewater is discharged into the environment untreated, contaminating remaining freshwater sources.

    Deforestation and land degradation – Eg- Forested watersheds have lost up to 22% of their cover in the last 15 years, leading to increased sedimentation in reservoirs and reduced groundwater seepage.

    Reasons for the Crisis of Access

    Infrastructural Disrepair-aging or non-existent pipes and treatment plants limit access.

    Lack of funding for water distribution infrastructure. Eg- Democratic Republic of Congo possesses 50% of Africa’s water but has a very low rate of per-capita access to potable water.

    Urban-Rural Inequality-Infrastructure investment is disproportionately centered in affluent urban hubs, leaving rural areas behind.

    Rapid, Unplanned Urbanization-Growth in “megacities” has outpaced the expansion of utility networks. Eg- day zero in Chennai and Banglore

    Institutional Failure & Corruption-Mismanagement of water utilities leads to high costs and unreliable service. Eg- tanker mafia in Pune

    To reverse the “global water bankruptcy,” the way forward must include-

    Water-Smart Agriculture-Transitioning to drip irrigation and drought-resistant crops (like millets).

    Circular Water Economy-Mandatory recycling of industrial and municipal wastewater to “close the loop.”

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)-Investing in “Sponge Cities” and artificial recharge

    Universal Water Governance-international treaty to protect transboundary basins.

  • What were the major technological changes introduced during the Sultanate period? How did those technological changes influence the Indian society?

    The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) was established by Qutbuddin Aibak after the decline of Ghurid power, marking the beginning of a new phase of technological diffusion and institutional transformation in medieval India.

    Technological Changes Introduced During the Sultanate Period

    Agriculture

    Persian wheel (saqiya) improved irrigation efficiency and water lifting. Led to expansion of cultivation in Punjab and Doab regions.

    Improved iron tools and ploughs enhanced productivity.

    Introduction of new crops from West and Central Asia. Eg- Spinach, carrot, watermelon, pomegranate.

    Coinage

    Introduction of standardised metallic currency. Eg- Silver tanka and copper jital under Iltutmish.

    Experimentation with token currency. Eg- Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s copper token coins.

    Architecture

    Development of Indo-Islamic architectural style blending Indian and Persian elements.

    Introduction of true arch, dome, and vault using lime mortar. Eg- Alai Darwaza, Qutub Minar complex.

    Infrastructure

    Construction of roads, bridges, sarais, and canals. Eg- Road networks and sarais under Alauddin Khalji.

    Textiles

    Introduction of spinning wheel (charkha) led to expansion of cotton weaving in northern India.

    Use of new dyeing and weaving techniques from Central Asia.

    Military Technology

    Use of composite bow, iron stirrup, and horse-based cavalry warfare.

    Introduction of standing armies and branding of horses (dagh system).

    Paper Technology

    Introduction of paper manufacturing by replacing palm-leaf manuscripts.

    Expansion of record-keeping, education, and administration.

    Influence of These Technological Changes on Indian Society

    Agrarian Expansion – Eg- Use of Persian wheel in the Indo-Gangetic plains supported multiple cropping.

    Agricultural surplus and craft specialisation encouraged urban centres. Eg- Expansion of Delhi, Multan, Lahore as commercial towns.

    Monetisation of the Economy – Standardised coinage facilitated trade and taxation.

    Expansion of Trade – Better roads and sarais increased mobility of goods and merchants.

    Rise of Artisan and Craft Communities – Eg- Growth of weavers, masons, metalworkers in urban centres.

    Paper-based record keeping improved governance efficiency. Eg- Maintenance of revenue and military registers.

    Cultural Synthesis – Architectural innovations blended Indian and Islamic styles.

    Social Mobility- New professions emerged beyond traditional caste roles. Eg- Employment in karkhanas and state workshops.

    Technological diffusion linked India to global networks. Eg- West and Central Asia.

    The technological innovations of the Sultanate period laid the structural foundations of medieval Indian society and influenced subsequent Mughal developments.

  • Critically analyse the proposition that there is a high correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities.

    India is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world, characterised by numerous ethnicities, religions, languages, castes, tribes, and regional identities.

    Correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities

    Historical Discrimination Legacy in land ownership, credit access, and human capital that correlate with cultural identities.

    Occupational Lock-ins – Traditional caste or community occupations persist, limiting upward mobility. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Limited Political Voice – Smaller cultural groups historically underrepresented in power structures, affecting resources and development priorities. Eg- <10% SC, STs in secretariat position in GoI

    Tribal communities (Adivasis) living in remote belts face poor education, health, and infrastructure access.

    Geographical Isolation – Culturally distinct groups in hilly or forested areas often lack services and markets. Eg- lack of connectivity in North-East

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    Minority Religious Communities show lower education and employment outcomes as highlighted in the Sachar Committee report. Eg- higher % of muslim undertrails in Jail

    Linguistic Marginalization – Proficiency in English (a cultural/class marker) creates a divide between the “globalized elite” and those restricted to regional languages.

    Marginalization of transgenders and LGBTQ due to social discrimination and lack of access to basic amenities like health, education

    Other factors for Socio-Economic marginalities

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Rural-Urban Divide – Consumption and wage gaps.

    Infrastructure Deficits – Poor connectivity, electricity, and sanitation in backward districts hinder productivity.

    Gender Pay Gap – Women continue to earn significantly less than men

    Policy Implementation Gaps – affirmative policies sometimes fail to reach intended beneficiaries due to bureaucratic and governance bottlenecks. Eg- inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS

    However, cultural diversity has also helped in addressing socio-economic marginalities

    Affirmative action policies

    Reservation for SC, ST, OBC

    Tribal specific schemes like Van Dhan Scheme

    Rise of “Dalit Capitalism”

    Certain minority groups are among the most economically prosperous in India. Eg- Parsi and Jain communities

    Caste-Based Political Mobilization for claiming state resources and welfare. Eg- rise of OBC politics

    With improved data (caste census), better governance, and targeted policies, diversity can be transformed from a potential vulnerability into a driver of inclusive growth.

    Caste