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GS Paper: GS1

  • Does tribal development in India centre around two axes, those of displacement and of rehabilitation? Give your opinion.

    Tribal development has historically unfolded alongside resource extraction, conservation, and infrastructure expansion, resulting in more focus on displacement and rehabilitation.

    Axes of displacement and rehabilitation in tribal development

    STs constitute only 8.6% of the population but have comprised an estimated 40-55% of all persons displaced by “developmental” projects

    Mining in Tribal Belts – Eg- displacement of Gonds from Hasdeo Arand forest (2025-26) due to coal block allocations.

    Large Dams and Irrigation Projects – Eg- Sardar Sarovar Project displacing over 40000 families of Bhil and Gond communities.

    Hydropower Projects in Himalayas and North-East Eg- Subansiri and Dibang projects (Arunachal Pradesh).

    Wildlife Conservation and Protected Areas – Eg- Relocation of Baiga tribe from Kanha Tiger Reserve (Madhya Pradesh).

    Conflict-Induced Displacement- Eg- The Gutti Koya (Muria Gond) families fled Chhattisgarh during the Salwa Judum era

    Eco-Sensitive Zones – Restrictions on habitation and livelihoods.

    Urban and Industrial Expansion – Eg- Displacement of tribal settlements around Raipur and Ranchi due to industrial corridors.

    Focus on Compensation-Based (Cash-centric) Rehabilitation without livelihood restoration.

    Inadequate Cultural Rehabilitation – Loss of social and cultural ecosystems. Eg- sacred groves

    The “Rehabilitation Backlog”- Eg- less than 50% of those displaced by the Hirakud Dam (1950s) have been fully settled with land titles.

    Counter argument – other aspects of tribal development

    Political Representation and Voice – Eg- Reserved ST constituencies in legislatures.

    Rights-Based Development Framework – Eg- Forest Rights Act, 2006 granting individual and community forest rights.

    Self-Governance and Autonomy – Eg- PESA Act mandating Gram Sabha consent in Scheduled Areas.

    Livelihood-Centred Development – Eg- Minor Forest Produce (MFP) MSP scheme supporting tribal incomes.

    Human Development Interventions – Eg- Eklavya Model Residential Schools for tribal education.

    Cultural Preservation and Identity – Eg- Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) – to create digital knowledge repository

    Targeted Welfare and Livelihood Schemes – Eg- Van Dhan Vikas Kendras for value addition to forest produce.

    Gender-Sensitive Tribal Development – Eg- SHGs among tribal women under NRLM.

    Targeted Development schemes – Eg- PM-JANMAN Mission for development of 75 PVTGs

    Way Forward

    Effective Implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006

    Digitizing land records

    Setting up fast-track FRA tribunals

    Involving local Gram Sabhas in claim verification

    Strict implementation of the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition Act, 2013 to prevent forced evictions.

    Revamping Tribal Healthcare through Mobile Health Units and AYUSH Integration

    Linking SHGs with One District One Product (ODOP) initiative for market access to tribal handicrafts.

    Tribal development must transition from “rehabilitation-centric” to “rights-centric”, treating tribal communities not as beneficiaries of charity, but as custodians of nature and partners in national growth.

    Urbanization

  • Mahatma Jotirao Phule’s writings and efforts of social reforms touched issues of almost all subaltern classes. Discuss.

    Mahatma Jyotirao Phule (1827-1890) is regarded as the “Father of the Indian Social Revolution.” His radical approach sought social transformation through education and rationalism.

    Mahatma Phule’s writings

    Gulamgiri: drew parallels between the plight of lower castes in India and Black slaves in America.

    Shetkaryacha Asud : critique of the exploitation of farmers by the “Shetji-Bhatji” (moneylender-priest) alliance and the colonial bureaucracy.

    Tritiya Ratna : A play highlighting how education serves as the “third eye” that allows the oppressed to see through religious and social deception.

    Brahmananche Kasab: Exposed the various ways in which Brahmin priests exploited the ignorant masses through complex rituals and superstitions.

    Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Pustak: Published posthumously, it outlined a universal religion based on truth, social equality, and a single creator (Nirmika), rejecting idol worship and caste.

    Satsar (The Essence of Truth): defended Pandita Ramabai’s conversion and attacked Brahminical societal norms.

    In his poems and ballads (Powadas), he reinterpreted myths like the Aryan Invasion Theory to present Shudras as the “Bhumiputras” (sons of the soil) who were wrongly subjugated.

    Efforts of Social Reform

    Pioneering Women’s Education: In 1848, he opened the first indigenous school for girls at Bhide Wada, Pune.

    Education for Dalits: He established the first schools specifically for Mahar and Mang children (Ati-Shudras) in 1852.

    Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Founded the “Society of Truth Seekers” to liberate the lower castes from priestly control. It promoted rituals conducted by non-Brahmins.

    He opened his own private water tank in Pune for Dalits to use, directly challenging untouchability.

    Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (1863): He provided refuge to pregnant widows (often upper-caste) to deliver babies safely and secretly, even adopting one child, Yashwant.

    He campaigned vigorously against the forced tonsuring of widows and organized a strike of barbers in Pune to refuse shaving widows’ heads.

    Agrarian Reforms: He demanded irrigation facilities, animal breeding programs, and scientific farming to uplift the subaltern peasantry.

    Working Class Support: Along with his associate N.M. Lokhande, he supported the early mill worker movements in Bombay.

    Established night schools for those belonging to the working class who could not attend school during the day due to their labor.

    In his testimony to the Hunter Commission (1882), he demanded free and compulsory primary education and proportional representation for lower castes in government jobs.

    Critical Assessment

    His movement was regionally concentrated in western India.

    Limited mobilisation among industrial labour due to the early time period.

    He laid the foundation for later non-Brahmin and Dalit movements and contributed significantly to the idea of social justice and equality in modern India.

    Policy Specific

  • ‘The sculptors filled the Chandella artform with resilient vigor and breadth of life.’ Elucidate.

    Chandella rulers (9th-13th century CE) of Bundelkhand, with Khajuraho as their capital, created a “world in stone” through sculptures marked by energy, realism, and beauty.

    Resilient vigor and breadth of life in the Chandella artform

    Dynamic Human Expression – Eg- Expressive Apsaras writing a letter, adorning themselves, removing a thorn, or gazing into a mirror (Parsvanatha temple).

    Varied Moods – Sculptures capture joy, anxiety, indolence, and self-admiration, showing psychological depth.

    Erotic Sculptures – Mithuna couples at Lakshmana and Kandariya Mahadeva temples represent fertility, cosmic union, and continuity of life.

    Integration of sacred and secular life – Eg- Scenes of musicians, dancers, warriors, ascetics, household activities carved alongside deities.

    Dynamic Postures – tribhanga posture in Lakshmana temple apsaras conveying motion and grace

    Geographical Inspiration – Hills, rivers, and forests of Bundelkhand gave Chandella art natural vigor, with temples built like mountains and compared to the Himalayas and Kailash in inscriptions.

    Animal Vitality – Elephants at Vishvanatha temple entrance and lions, tigers, and mythical Vyala symbolize strength and vigor.

    Political Symbolism – Monumental Varaha of Yasovarman with 675 miniature figures embodies divine power and royal victory.

    Social Representation – Eg- Kings, queens, artisans, merchants, and commoners.

    Chandella artists created a universe in stone, best described by Banabhatta’s phrase “Darsit Visvarupa” – the vision of the cosmic form.

  • How are climate change and the sea level rise affecting the very existence of many island nations? Discuss with examples.

    As per the IPCC, global mean sea level rose by 0.20 m between 1901 and 2018. It has projected a global mean SLR of 1.3 to 1.6 m by 2100 under the high-emission scenario.

    Permanent submergence of land – Eg- Kiribati has already seen two small uninhabited islets (Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea) disappear underwater.

    Coastal erosion – Wave action and storm surges remove shoreline. Eg- Shoreline retreat in the Maldives.

    Salinisation of freshwater lenses – Sea water enters groundwater and contaminates wells leading to drinking water shortage.

    Frequent flooding during high tides and storms can lead to large scale displacement. Eg- “King tide” flooding in Tuvalu.

    Damage to housing and public infrastructure – Eg- Majuro Airport in the Marshall Islands frequently faces flooding

    Loss of agriculture – Salinity affects soil fertility and traditional crops. Eg- Taro cultivation affected in Kiribati and Tuvalu.

    Coral reef degradation – Ocean warming and acidification damage reefs that act as wave barriers. Eg- Coral bleaching in Fiji and Maldives.

    Impact on fisheries – Changes in ocean temperature and reef systems reduce fish catch, impacting livelihood

    Climate-induced migration – Eg- Kiribati purchased land in Fiji for future resettlement.

    Way Forward

    Hard Engineering Measures

    Seawalls to block wave attack.

    Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.

    Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.

    Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.

    Soft Engineering Measures

    Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.

    Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

    Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors.

    Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.

    Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.

    Strengthening coastal resilience and climate mitigation is essential to safeguard communities and advance SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water).

    Water

  • What are non-farm primary activities? How are these activities related to physiographic features in India? Discuss with suitable examples.

    Non-farm primary activities are those primary sector activities that involve the direct extraction or harvesting of natural resources other than crop cultivation.

    Major non-farm primary activities in India

    Mining

    Fishing and aquaculture

    Forestry and logging

    Animal husbandry and pastoralism

    Collection of minor forest produce

    Relation with physiographic features

    Mining – Concentration in plateau and mountain regions due to ancient crystalline rocks and sedimentary basins. Eg- Iron ore in Odisha-Jharkhand belt, coal in Damodar valley, bauxite in Eastern Ghats.

    Forestry – Dense forests grow in high relief and high rainfall areas. Eg- Coniferous forests in Himachal & Uttarakhand, tropical evergreen forests in Western Ghats.

    Animal Husbandry – Arid, Semi-Arid and Grassland Regions. Eg- Sheep rearing in Rajasthan, cattle in Gujarat, transhumance in Himalayas.

    Fishing – Coastal Plains and Riverine Regions. Eg- Marine fishing in Kerala & Gujarat, inland fisheries in Ganga-Brahmaputra plains, brackish water aquaculture in Andhra Pradesh and Chilika lake

    Minor Forest Produce in Central Indian Highlands and North-East hills. Eg- Tendu leaves in Madhya Pradesh, lac in Jharkhand.

    Horticulture and Plantation – Grows in hill slopes and high rainfall areas. Eg- Tea in Assam & Darjeeling, spices in Kerala.

    This reflects the intimate relationship between natural resource endowment and livelihood patterns, and highlights the need for region-specific, sustainable development strategies.


  • Discuss the salient features of the Harappan architecture.

    The architecture of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Culture) represents one of the earliest examples of sophisticated, utilitarian urban planning in human history.

    Salient Features of Harappan Architecture

    Grid-Based Town Planning

    The Layout: rectangular grid system, where streets and lanes intersected at right angles, cutting the settlement into neat blocks.

    The Arteries: Main avenues were exceptionally wide, running systematically from north-to-south and east-to-west to maximize natural ventilation.

    Dual Layout: Citadel and Lower Town

    The Citadel: Built on a massive mud-brick platform to protect against seasonal flooding. It housed elite administrative or public structures. Eg- Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro and large-scale public Granaries.

    The Lower Town (Residential Zone): Located to the east, this larger, non-elevated expanse housed the common citizens, merchants, and working-class artisans.

    Uniform and Durable Building Materials

    Standardized Bricks: the Harappans pioneered the use of kiln-burnt mud bricks.

    Proportional Consistency: dimensions of the bricks followed a strict mathematical ratio of 4:2:1.

    Residential Architecture and Privacy

    Courtyard-Centric Homes: Private houses varied from small two-room units to multi-story mansions, all constructed around an open central courtyard.

    Privacy Norms: No windows opened directly onto the main thoroughfares. Main entrance doors were strategically placed in side alleys to maintain privacy.

    Advanced Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering

    The Drainage Grid: Every residential unit was connected to a highly sophisticated, gravity-assisted street drainage network.

    Maintenance Infrastructure: Channels were covered by loose, removable limestone slabs or bricks to facilitate routine desilting and cleaning operations.

    Public Infrastructure Elements

    The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): It featured changing rooms, multi-tiered steps, and an incoming clean water well system.

    Dockyard Architecture (Lothal): It features thick, reinforced baked-brick retaining embankments designed to withstand water pressure.

    Harappan architecture reflects a remarkably egalitarian, planned, and civic-minded urban civilisation, whose principles of urban planning remain relevant even today.

  • Discuss how the changes in shape and sizes of continents and ocean basins of the planet take place due to tectonic movements of the crustal masses.

  • How does smart city in India, address the issues of urban poverty and distributive justice?

    The Smart Cities Mission aims to improve quality of life, economic opportunity, and sustainability through technology-enabled and citizen-centric urban governance.

    Role of smart cities in addressing issues of urban poverty and distributive justice

    Inclusive Urban Service Delivery – Area-based development with upgraded basic services in low-income neighbourhoods. Eg- 24×7 water supply in slum clusters using smart metering in Indore

    Affordable Housing – Convergence with PM Awas Yojana-Urban for in-situ redevelopment.

    Technology-Enabled Targeting of Welfare to reduce exclusion and leakage.

    Improved Urban Mobility for the Poor– Smart buses, integrated ticketing, and pedestrian-friendly streets. Eg- Ahmedabad’s BRTS

    Livelihood Generation and Skill Development– Skill hubs, incubation centres, and support for street vendors and MSMEs. Eg- “Smart Vending Zones” in Lucknow

    Digital Inclusion and Access- Citizen service centres, Public Wi-Fi, digital kiosks, enabling access to welfare, certificates, and grievance redressal.

    Participatory Governance through technology. Eg- Namma Bengaluru (Sahaaya 2.0) mobile app for reporting civic grievances in Bangalore

    Safety, Health, and Social Infrastructure – Smart surveillance, lighting, and emergency response improve safety for vulnerable groups.

    Environmental Justice– Eg- Flood mitigation, heat action plans, and green public spaces in dense areas.

    Transparency and Accountability in service delivery and outcomes. Eg- Public dashboards tracking water supply, waste management, and complaints.

    Challenges

    Area-Based Development Bias – Benefits concentrated in selected enclaves.

    Technology-Centric Design risks excluding digitally marginalised groups.

    Policy bias– Eg- Preference for visible projects over social infrastructure.

    Weak Community Participation – Low representation of slum dwellers in planning forums.

    Fragmented Governance – Eg- Overlaps among municipal bodies, SPVs, and parastatals.

    Affordability Concerns – Eg- Fare hikes in public transport affects daily-wage earners.

    Way Forward

    Scaling ‘SAHAYOG’ initiative of Odisha government at Pan India level

    Inclusive urban planning with affordable housing near workplaces

    In-situ slum upgrading instead of peripheral relocation

    With rights-based, inclusive, and people-centric urban policies, cities can instead become spaces of opportunity, dignity, and upward mobility for the urban poor.

    Effects of Globalization

    2018 – ‘Globalisation is generally said to promote cultural homogenisation but due to this cultural specificities appear to be strengthened in Indian society.’ Elucidate.

    Thomas Friedman, (The Lexus and the Olive Tree), defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper.

    Globalization Promoting Cultural Homogenization

    McDonaldization- standardization of food habits through fast-food culture

    Linguistic Imperialism- English as the lingua franca of the corporate and digital world.

    Shift from traditional joint families to nuclear units – Western individualistic social structures.

    Consumerist Modernity- Eg- rise of shopping mall culture

    Celebration of Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day, and Halloween over local seasonal festivals.

    Westernization of Attire- Eg- universalization of jeans and corporate suits

    Standardisation of Education and Knowledge – Eg- Emphasis on STEM, MBAs, and globally recognised certifications.

    Urban Architectural Uniformity – Glass towers and gated communities.

    Digital Culture Uniformity – Eg- Global viral challenges and influencer culture.

    Emphasis on individual rights like Right to Privacy etc

    Globalization Strengthening Cultural Specificities

    Glocalization (Think Global, Act Local) – Eg- McDonald’s menu in India is beef-free, while Domino’s serves Paneer Tikka Pizza.

    Revival of traditional cuisine. Eg- Makhana as “superfood”

    Revival of Regional Languages – Vernacular content reached a 55% share on OTT platforms. Eg- Sacred games or Panchayat show that “hyper-local” stories now have global audiences.

    Global Export of Culture – Eg- International Yoga Day and the global Ayurveda market have moved Indian traditional knowledge to the center of global wellness.

    The “One District One Product” (ODOP) initiative and GI tags for items like Kanchipuram Silk or Banarasi Zardozi have revitalized local artisan economies through e-commerce.

    Religious & Ritualistic Resurgence – Eg- use of social media and drones to broadcast the Kumbh Mela or Ganesh Chaturthi has made these “specificities” more visible and zealously observed

    Diaspora-Led Cultural Preservation – Eg- celebration of Diwali in white house or dandiya in New York’s times square

    “Ethnic” Fashion Boom- Globalization created a market for high-end traditional wear. Eg- FabIndia and designers like Sabyasachi have revitalized handlooms.

    Regional Media Growth as seen in the rise of Tollywood, Mollywood. Eg- global success of RRR or Kantara

    Greater policy focus on conservation of traditional knowledge. Eg- traditional knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

    Deep-rooted pluralism, regional diversity, and civilisational depth ensure that globalisation in India produces Cultural Hybridization and enriches India’s cultural fabric.

  • ⁠What are Tsunamis? How and where are they formed? What are their consequences? Explain with examples.

    A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves generated by the sudden displacement of a massive volume of water, usually due to undersea earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, or meteorite impacts.

    Tsunami Formation Process

    Tectonic Plate Movement – Occurs mainly at subduction zones where one plate sinks beneath another.

    Sudden Seafloor Displacement due to vertical uplift or subsidence of seabed

    Energy Transfer to Water Column leading to upward push.

    Wave Propagation in Deep Ocean – Waves travel at high speeds (up to 700-800 km/h) with low height.

    Wave Shoaling Near Coast – As depth decreases, wavelength decreases and height increases

    Consequences of Tsunamis

    Social Consequences

    Mass casualties – Over 2,30,000 deaths in 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.

    Large-scale displacement – Millions displaced in Indonesia and Sri Lanka (2004).

    Health crises – Water-borne diseases in relief camps.

    Psychological trauma – Long-term PTSD among survivors in Japan (2011).

    Economic Consequences

    Infrastructure destruction – Ports, roads, airports damaged. Eg- Severe infrastructure loss in Fukushima (2011).

    Loss of livelihoods – Fisheries and tourism collapse.

    High reconstruction costs – Japan’s 2011 losses estimated over $200 billion.

    Environmental Consequences

    Coastal ecosystem damage – Eg- Coral reef degradation in Andaman & Nicobar (2004).

    Soil salinization – Agricultural lands turned infertile.

    Secondary disasters. Eg- Fukushima nuclear accident (2011).

    Groundwater Contamination- Saltwater and sewage penetrate freshwater aquifers

    While they cannot be prevented, early warning systems, ecological buffers, and resilient coastal planning can significantly reduce their human and economic toll.

  • Rakhigarhi Skeletons Undergo DNA Analysis & Facial Reconstruction

    Why in News?

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has sent nearly 5,000-year-old skeletons excavated from Rakhigarhi, Haryana, for DNA analysis and facial reconstruction to gain insights into the people of the Harappan Civilization.

    Key Highlights

    • Five skeletons recovered:
      • 3 females and 2 males (preliminary assessment).
      • Estimated age: 30-40 years.
    • Scientific Institutions Involved:
      • Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), Kolkata: Anthropological study and facial reconstruction.
      • Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP), Lucknow: Ancient DNA analysis.
    • Objectives of the Study:
      • Determine ancestry and genetic profile.
      • Identify cause of death and possible diseases.
      • Reconstruct facial features and physical appearance.
      • Estimate height, lifestyle, and social status.
      • Reconstruct the palaeo-environment of the Harappan period.
    • Three additional disturbed burials with fragmentary remains were also discovered at Mound No. 7, the site’s ancient cemetery.

    About Rakhigarhi

    • Located in Hisar district, Haryana.
    • Largest known site of the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization.
    • Flourished during 2600-1900 BCE (Mature Harappan Phase).
    • Known for Planned urban settlement, Drainage system, Granaries, Cemetery remains, and Craft production

    Ancient DNA (aDNA)

    • DNA extracted from ancient bones, teeth, or other biological remains.
    • Used to study Human migration, Evolution, Population genetics, Ancient diseases

    [2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?

    [A] Dholavira

    [B] Kalibangan

    [C] Rakhigarhi

    [D] Ropar