The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) restored the original image of the iconic Mohenjo-daro bronze figurine in a Class 9 textbook after an earlier version had shaded its bare torso, reviving debates over cultural representation and historical interpretation.
About the Figurine
A bronze statuette discovered at Mohenjo-daro (1926), dating to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500 BCE).
About 10.5 cm tall, created using the lost-wax casting technique.
Depicts a young female figure adorned with numerous bangles and ornaments.
Why is its Identity Contested?
Archaeologist John Marshall identified it as a “nautch girl” (dancing girl) based on posture and appearance.
However, scholars argue there is no archaeological evidence that she was a professional dancer.
Historian Upinder Singh notes that the figure “may not have been dancing at all.”
Archaeologist Gregory L. Possehl also questioned the dancer interpretation.
Partition and Ownership Debate
After Partition, around 12,000 Harappan artefacts in Delhi became subjects of dispute between India and Pakistan.
Both countries agreed to a 50:50 division of artefacts from Mohenjo-daro and Chanhu-daro.
Pakistan chose the “Priest King” figurine over the Dancing Girl, reportedly due to concerns over the latter’s nudity.
The Dancing Girl remains in India and is viewed by many scholars as part of the shared heritage of South Asia.
Significance
Demonstrates the advanced metallurgical skills of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Highlights how colonial interpretations and contemporary moral values shape our understanding of the past.
Reflects debates on heritage ownership, gender, modesty, and cultural identity.
Value Addition
Lost-Wax Casting Technique: A metal casting process in which a wax model is covered with clay; molten metal replaces the melted wax to create the final sculpture.
The Dancing Girl is one of the most iconic artistic representations of the Indus Valley Civilization.
[2025] The famous female figurine known as ‘Dancing Girl’, found at Mohenjo-daro, is made of
India’s southwest monsoon rainfall deficit widened to 35%, with Central India recording a 61% deficit, as the monsoon stalled before reaching Mumbai. The Centre has placed around 150 to 200 districts under priority monitoring and directed States to prepare crop-wise contingency plans.
Key Highlights
All-India rainfall deficit: 35%.
Regional deficits: Northwest India: +5%, East & Northeast India: -43%, Central India: -61%, and Southern Peninsula: -14%
Monsoon reached Kerala on 4 June, but its advance weakened near Mumbai.
Around 150 to 200 districts under priority monitoring.
Government encouraging a shift towards cotton and pulses.
Reservoir storage stood at 30.4% of capacity, compared to 25.1% average during previous El Niño years.
Why has the Monsoon Stalled?
Anticyclonic circulation north of Mumbai blocked monsoon progression.
Influence of mid-latitude westerly systems.
Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is currently in an unfavourable phase.
Next monsoon pulse may strengthen with a low-pressure system over the Bay of Bengal.
El Niño Concerns
El Niño: Periodic warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean that generally suppresses the Indian monsoon.
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Issued El Niño advisory on 11 June. 63% probability of a very strong El Niño by winter.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO):80% probability of El Niño developing between June and August.
India Meteorological Department (IMD):
Seasonal rainfall forecast revised from 92% to 90% of the Long Period Average (LPA).
Assigned a 60% probability of a deficient monsoon, the most pessimistic pre-season forecast since 2015.
No positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) expected to offset El Niño effects.
Significance
Threatens kharif sowing and agricultural output.
May increase food inflation and rural distress.
Necessitates timely contingency planning and climate-resilient agriculture.
Highlights the need for improved water management and drought preparedness.
Value Addition
Long Period Average (LPA): Average rainfall during 1971-2020, used as the benchmark for monsoon forecasts.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): Difference in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern Indian Ocean that can influence Indian monsoon rainfall.
[2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. IOD phenomenon is characterised by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. 2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
The emergence of Super El Niño conditions in the equatorial Pacific Ocean has become a major concern because it coincides with India’s crucial southwest monsoon season. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has officially confirmed the development of El Niño and warned that it is expected to strengthen further during the monsoon months. This
How Has El Niño Developed During the Current Monsoon Season?
IMD Confirmation: El Niño conditions have officially emerged in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
Strengthening Trend: IMD expects the phenomenon to intensify further during the ongoing southwest monsoon season.
NOAA Assessment: The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) earlier confirmed El Niño emergence.
Peak Projection: NOAA projects the event to peak during November-January.
Intensity Forecast: The event may approach the “very strong” category.
ENSO Threshold
Niño 3.4 Region: El Niño is declared when sea surface temperature anomalies exceed +0.5°C in the Niño 3.4 region.
The Niño 3.4 region (5°N-5°S, 170°W-120°W) is the primary equatorial Pacific area used by scientists to monitor, define, and predict the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Current Reading: Weekly Niño 3.4 Index reached +0.7°C.
Eastern Pacific Warming: Temperature anomalies reached +2.1°C in the easternmost Pacific region.
What Makes the Current El Niño Different from Previous Events?
Emerging “Super El Niño” Concerns
NOAA Forecast: El Niño has officially formed in the tropical Pacific Ocean and is likely to strengthen significantly in the coming months.
Historical Significance: Scientists have projected that the current event could rank among the strongest El Niño episodes recorded since 1950.
Probability Estimate: NOAA estimates a 63% probability that the event will intensify into one of the largest El Niño events in the historical record.
Transition Phase: The current event follows the end of La Niña conditions earlier in 2026.
Global Warning: The UN Secretary-General António Guterres has described the phenomenon as an “urgent climate warning.”
What Lessons Can Be Drawn from the 2015-16 Super El Niño?
India’s Experience
Rainfall Deficit: India received only 86% of Long Period Average (LPA) rainfall.
Agricultural Stress: Several states experienced drought-like conditions.
Water Scarcity: Reservoir levels and groundwater recharge declined.
Key Lesson
ENSO Alone is Not Deterministic: Strong El Niño events do not always produce identical outcomes.
Role of Other Drivers: Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO), Eurasian snow cover and regional ocean temperatures also influence monsoon performance.
Conclusion
The emerging El Niño highlights the growing interaction between natural climate variability and global warming. With risks of weaker monsoons, heatwaves, food insecurity and extreme weather events, India must strengthen climate-resilient agriculture, early warning systems, water management and disaster preparedness to reduce vulnerability and build long-term resilience.
Value Addition
Year
Characteristics
Global Impact
1982-83
One of strongest recorded
Droughts, floods, crop losses
1997-98
Extreme warming
Major global weather disruptions
2015-16
Strongest of recent decades
Global temperature records broken
2026-27*
Potential Super El Niño
Risk of hottest year in recorded history
Positive vs Negative IOD
Positive IOD
Negative IOD
Warmer western Indian Ocean
Warmer eastern Indian Ocean
Supports Indian monsoon
Weakens monsoon
Can offset El Niño impact
Can worsen El Niño impact
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2015] How far do you agree that the behavior of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscapes? Discuss.
Linkage: The PYQ examines changing monsoon patterns and the factors affecting rainfall variability in India. The article discusses how the emerging Super El Niño could weaken the southwest monsoon, alter rainfall distribution, intensify heatwaves and interact with climate change to reshape India’s monsoon behaviour.
Andhra Pradesh recently announced cash incentives of ₹30,000-₹50,000 for women having a third or fourth child. India’s demographic policy debate has entered a new phase as several states are considering incentives for larger families after decades of promoting smaller families. The trigger is the sustained decline in fertility rates, with India’s TFR falling to 1.9, below the replacement level of 2.1, and states such as Andhra Pradesh recording TFRs as low as 1.3.
What is the Demographic transition?
It refers to the shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as societies develop economically and socially.
Historically, fertility declines have accompanied rising incomes, urbanisation, female education, and workforce participation.
India has now entered a phase where fertility rates have fallen below replacement levels, prompting discussions on whether public policy should move from population control to population stabilisation or even population encouragement in certain regions.
Is India Experiencing a Significant Fertility Decline?
Below-Replacement Fertility: India’s Total Fertility Rate has declined to 1.9, below the replacement level of 2.1.
Sharp Regional Variations: Several southern states have reached extremely low fertility levels. Andhra Pradesh’s TFR has fallen to around 1.3.
Long-Term Trend: Fertility decline has been occurring steadily since economic liberalisation and social transformation accelerated.
Demographic Transition: Falling fertility reflects increasing urbanisation, higher female education levels, delayed marriages, and changing family preferences.
Individualistic Social Behaviour: Smaller family norms have become socially embedded and are difficult to reverse through financial incentives alone.
What Factors Are Driving Calls for Larger Families?
Population Ageing: Falling fertility rates increase the share of elderly citizens relative to the working-age population.
Shrinking Workforce Concerns: Fewer births today may reduce future labour force availability.
Federal Representation Debate: Concerns exist that states with slower population growth may face reduced political representation after future delimitation exercises.
Economic Sustainability: A shrinking working-age population may affect savings, investments, productivity, and economic growth.
Dependency Burden: Lower worker-to-retiree ratios increase pressure on pension systems and healthcare expenditure.
Can Financial Incentives Reverse Fertility Decline?
Limited International Success: Evidence suggests fertility incentives have produced only modest improvements in fertility rates.
Behavioural Transformation: Fertility decisions are increasingly influenced by lifestyle choices rather than financial considerations.
Rising Cost of Child-Rearing: Education, healthcare, housing, and childcare expenses discourage larger families.
Women’s Workforce Participation: Increased female employment often correlates with delayed childbirth and smaller family sizes.
Economic Trade-Offs: Families increasingly prefer investing more resources in fewer children.
Structural Constraints: Fertility decline is linked to broader social and economic transformations that cannot be reversed solely through cash transfers.
Andhra Pradesh Initiative: The state announced incentives of ₹30,000-50,000 for women having a third or fourth child to encourage larger families.
What Lessons Emerge from International Experience?
Poland
Cash Incentives: Introduced financial support programmes to encourage childbirth.
Limited Impact: Fertility rates improved marginally but failed to sustain long-term reversal.
Hungary
Tax Benefits: Implemented extensive tax incentives and family support policies.
Mixed Outcomes: Temporary increases in births were observed, but fertility remained below replacement level.
Sweden and France
Comprehensive Family Support: Combined childcare facilities, parental leave, and work-life balance measures.
Better Results: Recorded relatively higher fertility rates compared to many European countries.
South Korea
Massive Public Spending: Invested heavily in pro-natalist policies.
Persistent Low Fertility: Fertility rates remain among the lowest globally.
Singapore and Japan
Demographic Ageing Challenge: Despite policy interventions, ageing and low fertility continue to persist.
Why Is Fertility Decline Difficult to Reverse?
Socio-Cultural Change: Fertility behaviour changes permanently after societies become economically advanced.
Urbanisation: Urban lifestyles increase living costs and reduce preference for larger families.
Career Aspirations: Education and employment opportunities alter family planning decisions.
Delayed Marriage: Rising marriage age directly reduces fertility levels.
Changing Family Structure: Nuclear families increasingly replace traditional joint-family support systems.
Quality-over-Quantity Preference: Parents prioritise greater investment in fewer children.
How Does Fertility Decline Affect India’s Federal Structure?
Uneven Demographic Transition: Different states are at different stages of demographic transition.
Divergent Economic Needs: Younger states may prioritise job creation, while ageing states may prioritise pensions and healthcare.
Policy Asymmetry: States may require different social and economic policies based on demographic profiles.
Delimitation Concerns: States with lower population growth fear reduced parliamentary representation.
Inter-State Demographic Imbalances: Population trends could reshape political and fiscal dynamics within the federation.
Does India Face an Immediate Labour Shortage?
Current Labour Surplus: India continues to have a large working-age population.
Low Female Labour Participation: A substantial share of working-age women remain outside the workforce
Labour Market Vacancies: Some vacancies persist despite available labour, indicating skill mismatches rather than absolute shortages.
Underemployment Challenge: Employment generation remains a larger concern than workforce scarcity.
Demographic Dividend Window: India continues to benefit from a sizeable youth population.
Can Migration Offset Regional Population Decline?
Labour Mobility: Interstate migration can help address workforce shortages in ageing states.
Economic Integration: Workers move towards regions with greater employment opportunities.
Historical Experience: Migration has supported economic growth in rapidly developing regions.
Political Sensitivities: Large-scale migration may generate social and political concerns in receiving state
Labour Market Adjustment: Migration often serves as a natural response to demographic imbalances.
Is Population Growth the Best Solution to Ageing?
Healthcare Investments: Strong healthcare systems can mitigate ageing-related challenges.
Pension Reforms: Sustainable pension systems reduce dependency burdens.
Human Capital Development: A skilled workforce can compensate for slower population growth.
Productivity Enhancement: Technological advancement can offset labour shortages.
Silver Economy: Ageing populations create new economic sectors related to healthcare, caregiving, and elderly services.
Alternative Policy Choice: Investment in education, skills, and productivity may yield better outcomes than incentivising higher fertility.
Conclusion
India’s fertility decline reflects an advanced stage of demographic transition rather than a population crisis. While ageing and workforce concerns require attention, international experience shows that fertility incentives alone have limited impact. India’s priority should be strengthening human capital, productivity, healthcare, and social security to ensure sustainable demographic and economic growth.
Value Addition
Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
Stage I
High birth rate and high death rate.
Population growth remains low.
Stage II
Death rate declines due to healthcare improvements.
Population grows rapidly.
Stage III
Birth rate starts declining.
Population growth slows.
Stage IV
Low birth rate and low death rate.
Stable population.
Stage V
Birth rate falls below death rate.
Population ageing and decline begin.
India: Transitioning between Stage III and Stage IV.
Replacement Level Fertility
Average number of children required per woman to maintain population stability.
Generally estimated at 2.1 children per woman.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5)
India’s TFR: 2.0
Several southern states have fertility rates significantly below replacement level.
Reflects continuing demographic transition.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] What is the concept of a ‘demographic winter’? Is the world moving towards such a situation? Elaborate
Linkage: The PYQ directly examines declining fertility, ageing populations, and shrinking workforce concerns. The article debates whether India should respond to below-replacement fertility by incentivising larger families to avoid a future demographic winter.
On 9 June 2026, the death anniversary of Birsa Munda was observed across Jharkhand. Several tribal organisations pledged to protect his legacy amid renewed debates over the delisting of tribal converts from the Scheduled Tribes list, bringing Birsa’s ideas on Adivasi identity, land rights, and self-rule back into focus.
Who was Birsa Munda?
Born: 15 November 1875, Ulihatu (present-day Jharkhand).
Died: 9 June 1900, Ranchi Jail.
Belonged to the Munda tribe.
Revered as: Dharti Aba (“Father of the Earth”) and “Bhagwan” by followers.
Tribal leader, social reformer, religious preacher, and anti-colonial freedom fighter.
Ulgulan (The Great Tumult)
Tribal uprising led by Birsa Munda during 1899-1900.
“Ulgulan” means Great Tumult.
Centred in the Chotanagpur Plateau.
Causes
Encroachment on tribal lands.
Exploitative practices of:
British administration,
Zamindars,
Moneylenders,
“Dikus” (non-tribal outsiders).
Erosion of traditional tribal institutions.
Missionary influence and socio-cultural disruptions.
Objectives
Restoration of traditional land rights.
End of British rule.
Expulsion of exploitative outsiders.
Establishment of tribal self-rule.
Concept of “Disum”
Refers to self-rule or autonomous tribal governance.
Reflected Birsa’s vision of Adivasi sovereignty, Community control over resources, and Cultural autonomy.
Dombari Buru
Major centre of the Ulgulan.
In January 1899, thousands gathered to assert tribal rights.
British troops opened fire on the gathering.
Remembered in Adivasi memory as a massacre.
Became a symbol of tribal resistance.
Khuntkatti System
Traditional Munda system of collective land ownership.
Village lands belonged to descendants of original settlers called Khuntkattidars.
Combined land rights with customary governance.
Chotanagpur Tenancy (CNT) Act, 1908
Background
Enacted following decades of tribal resistance, including Birsa’s movement.
Objectives
Prevent transfer of tribal land to non-tribals.
Legally recognise customary tribal land rights.
Protect Khuntkatti tenure systems.
[2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Trumult is the description of which of the following events?
(a) The Revolt of 1857 (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the first-ever World Yogasana Championship in Ahmedabad through a video message.
Key Highlights
Event: First World Yogasana Championship 2026.
Venue: Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Significance: Marks a new phase in the global recognition of Yogasana as a competitive sport.
Prime Minister’s remarks:
Expressed confidence that Yogasana may eventually be included in:
Olympics
Other multi-sport international events.
Timing:
Championship organized ahead of:
International Day of Yoga celebrated annually on 21 June.
Theme of International Yoga Day 2026: “Yoga for Healthy Ageing”.
Global support for Yoga:
Around 190 countries supported India’s proposal at the United Nations for International Yoga Day.
“Yoga 365” campaign:
Initiative of the Ministry of Ayush to encourage daily yoga practice.
Opportunities highlighted:
Careers for:
Athletes
Trainers
Sports scientists
Researchers
Event managers
About International Day of Yoga
Declared by the United Nations
First celebrated on 21 June 2015.
Origin: Proposal introduced by India in the UN General Assembly in 2014.
Objective: Promote physical, mental, and spiritual well-being through yoga.
[2025] Consider the following statements in respect of the first Kho Kho World Cup: I. The event was held in Delhi, India. II. Indian men beat Nepal with a score of 78-40 in the final to become the World Champion in men category. III. Indian women beat Nepal with a score of 54-36 in the final to become the World Champion in women category. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The year 2026 marks the 79th anniversary of the June 3 Declaration. The Mountbatten plan formally accepted the Partition of British India after decades of constitutional negotiations aimed at preserving unity. It is significant as it represented a dramatic departure from earlier British efforts such as the Cabinet Mission Plan, which sought a united federal India.
How Did British India Reach the Stage of Partition by 1947?
Communal Polarisation: Intensified after the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan and growing Hindu-Muslim political divergence.
Direct Action Day (1946): Triggered widespread communal violence, particularly in Calcutta.
Escalating Riots: Violence spread to Noakhali, Bihar, Bombay, Punjab, and other regions.
Failure of Constitutional Negotiations: The Cabinet Mission Plan failed to secure agreement between Congress and the Muslim League.
British Urgency: Post-World War II Britain lacked the resources and political will to govern India indefinitely.
Why Did Lord Mountbatten Conclude That Partition Had Become Inevitable?
Administrative Breakdown: Increasing communal violence threatened governance and public order.
Political Deadlock: Congress and the Muslim League remained divided on power-sharing arrangements.
Pakistan Demand: Muslim League leadership under Muhammad Ali Jinnah remained committed to a separate state.
Time Constraints: Britain sought a rapid and orderly withdrawal from India.
Security Concerns: Continued instability threatened a larger civil conflict across the subcontinent.
The “Plan Balkan” Rejection: Before the June 3rd Plan, Mountbatten drafted the “Dickie Bird Plan” (Plan Balkan), which suggested letting individual provinces declare themselves independent successor states. Jawaharlal Nehru fiercely opposed it, arguing it would lead to total balkanization and chaos, prompting Mountbatten to scrap.
Key Provisions of the June 3rd Plan
Creation of Two Dominions: British India was divided into the sovereign dominions of India and Pakistan, both holding the temporary right to retain British Commonwealth status.
Partition of Bengal and Punjab: The Legislative Assemblies of Punjab and Bengal met in separate sections (Muslim-majority vs. non-Muslim majority areas) to vote on partition. Simple majorities in favor meant both provinces were split.
Border Demarcation: A Boundary Commission, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, was established to draw the exact international borders for Punjab and Bengal.
Regional Referendums: The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the Sylhet district of Assam held popular referendums to determine whether they would join India or Pakistan. Both ultimately voted to join Pakistan.
Status of Princely States: The 565 autonomous princely states were stripped of British paramountcy. They were given the choice to join either India or Pakistan based on geographical contiguity, while independent status was explicitly denied by the British administration.
Sovereign Constituent Assemblies: Each dominion established its own sovereign assembly to design its independent constitution.
Accelerated Timeline: Advanced from June 1948 to August 15, 1947.
Why did Congress Accept the Partition Plan?
Violence Containment: Sought to prevent further communal bloodshed.
Governability: Preferred a smaller but politically cohesive India.
Strong Central Authority: Feared prolonged instability in a weak federal arrangement.
Administrative Practicality: Viewed Partition as the quickest route to independence.
Key Leaders Involved
Jawaharlal Nehru: Accepted Partition as a political necessity.
Sardar Patel: Favoured a pragmatic settlement to avoid prolonged conflict.
Why Did the Muslim League Support the June 3 Plan?
Pakistan Objective: Fulfilled the League’s principal political demand.
Political Representation: Addressed fears of marginalisation in a Hindu-majority state.
Self-Determination Argument: Presented Pakistan as a means of safeguarding Muslim political interests.
Recognition of Separate Nationhood: Reinforced the League’s Two-Nation Theory.
What Objections Were Raised Against the Plan?
Muslim League Concerns
Punjab Partition: Opposed division of Punjab.
Bengal Partition: Opposed division of Bengal.
Sikh Concerns
Boundary Security: Demanded stronger safeguards in Punjab.
Population Distribution: Feared division of Sikh religious and economic centres.
Congress Concerns
National Unity: Regarded Partition as a tragic compromise.
Inadequate Preparation: Insufficient planning for migration and security.
Boundary Ambiguities: Created confusion and unrest.
Humanitarian Disaster: Failed to anticipate the scale of violence and displacement.
Long-Term Conflict: Left unresolved territorial and identity disputes.
Conclusion
The Mountbatten Plan remains one of the most consequential political decisions in modern South Asian history. While it facilitated the end of colonial rule and enabled the emergence of independent states, it also exposed the limitations of hurried decolonisation. The legacy of Partition continues to influence India-Pakistan relations, debates on identity and federalism, and discussions on managing diversity within democratic nation-states.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2019] Assess the impact of British imperial power in complicating the process of transfer of power during the 1940s.
Linkage: The question examines the British role in shaping the final phase of India’s independence and Partition. The Mountbatten Plan was the decisive framework through which Britain managed the transfer of power, accelerated Partition, and redrew the political map of the Indian subcontinent.
A massive dust storm recently affected Churu, Hanumangarh, Sri Ganganagar, Bikaner, Nagaur, Didwana-Kuchaman, Alwar and Sikar in Rajasthan, drawing attention to the critical role of the Aravalli Range in shielding the Indo-Gangetic Plains from Thar Desert dust. Scientists warn that degradation of the Aravallis due to mining, deforestation and land-use change is allowing more dust to reach Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, even during less intense storms.
What are the features of the Aravallis Range?
The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest surviving fold mountain systems on Earth. It serves as a vital ecological and climate-regulating spine across northwestern India.
Location and Extent
Length: The range stretches approximately 670 to 700 kilometres.
Alignment: It runs in a distinct south-west to north-east direction.
States Covered: The range begins near Delhi, passes through southern Haryana and Rajasthan, and terminates near Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
Geological Significance
Age: Formed during the Precambrian era (roughly 1.7 to 2.5 billion years ago), it predates the Himalayas by more than a billion years.
Evolution: It was originally an immense mountain chain, potentially as tall as the modern Himalayas. Over eons, wind and water weathered it down into discontinuous, residual hills and ridges.
Composition: The range consists of highly resistant metamorphic and igneous rocks, including quartzite, granite, schist, and gneiss
Key Peaks and Drainage
Highest Point: Guru Shikhar on the Mount Abu massif in Rajasthan, standing at 1,722 metres (5,650 feet).
Major Rivers: The western slopes give rise to the Luni River (which drains into the Rann of Kutch) and the Sabarmati River. The eastern slopes feed the Banas River, a major tributary of the Chambal-Yamuna system.
How do the Aravallis act as a natural shield against the Thar Desert dust?
Dust Interception Mechanism
Obstacle Dunes: Large sand deposits located on western slopes intercept dust-laden winds originating from the Thar Desert.
Agricultural Expansion: Contributes to habitat modification and soil degradation.
What is the current state of degradation in the Aravalli ecosystem?
Forest Survey Findings
Hill Loss: Assessment found that 31 out of 128 Aravalli hills in Rajasthan had disappeared due to anthropogenic pressures.
Topographic Alteration: Significant reduction observed in hill systems between 200 and 600 metres above sea level.
Affected Regions
Naraina
Kalwar
Kotputli
Jhalana
Sariska
These areas have witnessed substantial ecological disturbance.
Government Assessment
Aravalli Restoration Framework: Identified mining, deforestation, urbanisation, construction activities, land-use change, pastoral pressures and encroachments as major causes of degradation.
What are the environmental and climatic consequences of Aravalli degradation?
Air Quality Impacts
Dust Intrusion: Increased transport of desert dust towards Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Particulate Pollution: Worsens PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.
Public Health Risks: Raises respiratory and cardiovascular disease burden.
Climate Impacts
Rainfall Modification: Dust aerosols influence cloud formation and precipitation dynamics.
Regional Climate Effects: Alter atmospheric circulation and radiation balance.
Soil Conservation: Reduces erosion and dust generation.
Institutional Coordination
Inter-State Cooperation: Facilitates coordinated conservation across Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.
Integrated Monitoring: Strengthens environmental surveillance using remote sensing and GIS.
Climate Adaptation
Nature-Based Solutions: Enhances resilience against desertification and dust storms.
Green Buffer Development: Supports long-term air quality management.
Conclusion
The Aravalli Range is not merely a geological feature but a critical ecological barrier that protects northern India from desert dust, air pollution and land degradation. Its continuing degradation due to mining, deforestation and unplanned development threatens the environmental security of Rajasthan, Delhi and the wider Indo-Gangetic Plains, making landscape restoration and sustainable management an urgent policy priority.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2020] The process of desertification does not have climatic boundaries. Justify with examples
Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of desertification, land degradation and the wider ecological impacts of environmental change beyond arid regions. The article shows how degradation of the Aravalli Range is enabling Thar Desert dust to spread into Delhi and the Indo-Gangetic Plains, illustrating that the effects of desertification can extend far beyond desert areas.
The sacred relics of Arhat Sariputra and Arhat Mahamoggallana, the two chief disciples of Lord Buddha, were ceremonially enshrined at Gandantegchenling Monastery during Buddha Purnima (Vesak Day) 2026.
Key Highlights
The relics were brought from India to Mongolia for a 10 day exposition from 31 May to 10 June 2026.
The exposition was inaugurated in the presence of:
Lakshman Prasad Acharya
Atul Malhari Gotsurve
Buddhist leaders and representatives of the International Buddhist Confederation.
The relics are preserved at the stupas of Sanchi Stupa.
About the Relics
Arhat Sariputra
One of the foremost disciples of Gautama Buddha.
Known for wisdom and deep understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
Arhat Mahamoggallana
Another chief disciple of Buddha.
Famous for spiritual powers and meditative attainments.
India-Mongolia Relations
India and Mongolia share strong Buddhist civilisational ties.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi earlier described the two nations as “spiritual neighbours.”
The event coincides with:
70 years of diplomatic relations
10 years of Strategic Partnership
[2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:: 1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin. 2.Stupa was generally a repository of relics. 3.Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
A magnitude 6.0 earthquake struck near Honaunau-Napoopoo on the Big Island.
About the Big Island
The largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago
Part of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean
Area: ~10,432 km²
Formed through volcanic activity
Five Major Volcanoes
Kohala
Hualālai
Mauna Kea
Mauna Loa
Kīlauea
Important Volcanoes
Mauna Loa
One of the world’s largest volcanoes
Shield volcano
Greatest mass of any mountain on Earth
Kīlauea
Among the world’s most active volcanoes
Frequently erupting since 1983
Shield Volcano
A volcano with broad, gentle slopes formed by fluid lava flows. Examples: Mauna Loa and Kīlauea
Mauna Kea
The highest point in Hawaii above sea level
Hosts major astronomical observatories
Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Protects Kīlauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes
Why are Earthquakes Common in Hawaii?
Due to:
Volcanic activity
Movement of tectonic plates
Hotspot volcanism
Hotspot Volcanism
A hotspot is a place where hot magma rises from Earth’s mantle. As the Pacific Plate moves over it, volcanic islands form.
[2024] Consider the following: 1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compounds How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?
