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GS Paper: GS1

  • 150 years of ‘Vande Mataram’

    Why in the News?

    In his Mann Ki Baat broadcast, Prime Minister Narendra Modi called upon citizens to commemorate 150 years of our national song “Vande Mataram”.

    About Vande Mataram:

    • Overview: Written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay around 1875, originally in Sanskrit (Bengali script) and later included in his novel Anandamath (1882), depicting the Sannyasi Rebellion against British rule.
    • Meaning: It means “I bow to thee, Mother”, symbolising devotion to the motherland, unity, and the spirit of sacrifice.
    • First Rendition: First sung publicly by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 Indian National Congress Session, transforming it into a nationalist anthem.
    • Role in Freedom Struggle: Became a rallying cry for revolutionaries in Swadeshi Movement, sung in protests, prisons, and meetings representing Ma Bharati as a symbol of resistance and national pride.
    • Official Status: In 1937, the Indian National Congress adopted its first two stanzas as the National Song; on January 24, 1950, Dr. Rajendra Prasad granted it equal status with Jana Gana Mana in the Constituent Assembly.
    • Structure & Style: Comprises six stanzas, combining Sanskrit precision and Bengali rhythm, praising India’s nature, strength, and divinity.
    • Translations & Music: Sri Aurobindo translated it into English (Karmayogin, 1909); V.D. Paluskar and Ravi Shankar popularised musical renditions.
    • Cultural Symbolism: Personifies India as the Divine Mother, transcending religious and regional divides; played instrumentally at the end of Parliamentary sessions.
    [UPSC 2016] ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Boycott’ were adopted as methods of struggle for the first time during the
    Options: (a) Agitation against the Partition of Bengal *
    (b) Home Rule Movement
    (c) Non-Cooperation Movement
    (d) Visit of the Simon Commission to India

     

  • Gyan Bharatam Mission 

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Culture will formalise partnerships with around 20 institutions under the Gyan Bharatam Mission, a flagship national initiative for manuscript conservation, digitisation, and research.

    About Gyan Bharatam Mission:

    • Overview: It is a flagship national mission of the Ministry of Culture (GoI) to preserve, digitise, and promote India’s manuscript heritage.
    • Launch: Approved as a Central Sector Scheme (2024–2031) with an outlay of ₹482.85 crore.
    • Background: Builds upon the National Mission for Manuscripts (2003), which documented over 44 lakh manuscripts.
    • Objective: To integrate traditional conservation with modern digital technologies including AI, cloud storage, and blockchain authentication.
    • Core Goal: Establish a National Digital Repository (NDR), a unified, globally accessible platform showcasing India’s intellectual and cultural heritage.
    • Vision Alignment: Supports Viksit Bharat @2047 and India’s role as a Vishwa Guru in global knowledge preservation.

    Key Features:

    • Comprehensive Scope: Covers identification, conservation, digitisation, translation, and public dissemination.
    • Survey & Documentation: Creation of a national manuscript inventory through Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs).
    • National Digital Repository (NDR): Uses AI-based Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR) for searchable digital access.
    • Institutional Network: Implements through Cluster Centres and Independent Centres for nationwide coordination.
    • Scientific Conservation: Strengthens Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) for preventive and curative preservation.
    • Funding Structure: 70% upfront release and 30% post-verification based on measurable outcomes.
    • Public Engagement: Promotes youth and researcher participation via Gyan-Setu AI Innovation Challenge.
    • Quality Assurance: Ensures accountability through third-party audits, utilisation checks, and review mechanisms.

  • How do monsoons affect Tamil Nadu?

    Introduction

    Tamil Nadu’s northeast monsoon, traditionally spanning October to December, has arrived early for the second consecutive year, bringing intense and localized rainfall. While excess rainfall was once viewed as a boon for agriculture and water storage, climate change has made “excess” a liability, causing flash floods, crop destruction, and structural damage. The situation is compounded by simultaneous inflows from Kerala via the Mullaperiyar Dam, creating a dual-flood scenario that tests the resilience of Tamil Nadu’s urban systems, infrastructure, and disaster governance.

    Urban Flooding: A Consequence of Unsustainable Development

    1. Impervious surfaces: Extensive concretization and asphalt paving prevent rainwater infiltration, resulting in rapid surface runoff that overwhelms drainage systems.
    2. Inadequate drainage networks: Poor maintenance and blockage of stormwater drains lead to flash floods and prolonged inundation in low-lying areas.
    3. Infrastructure shutdowns: Power authorities resort to preventive power cuts to avoid electrocution risks, compounding public inconvenience and economic losses.
    4. Sewage overflows: Heavy rainfall triggers untreated wastewater discharge into streets and waterbodies, leading to public health crises and water contamination.

    Agricultural Distress and Soil Degradation

    1. Waterlogging and root suffocation: Excess moisture damages crop roots, washes away seeds, and erodes nutrient-rich topsoil, reducing long-term fertility.
    2. Fungal and pest proliferation: Moist environments facilitate fungal infections and pest outbreaks, lowering crop yields.
    3. Nutrient runoff: Heavy rain carries fertilizers and pesticides into reservoirs, degrading water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
    4. Economic losses: Repeated crop failure translates into financial vulnerability for farmers and food supply disruptions.

    Health and Environmental Risks of Prolonged Rainfall

    1. Vector-borne diseases: Stagnant water acts as a breeding ground for mosquitoes, leading to malaria, dengue, and Japanese encephalitis outbreaks.
    2. Zoonotic transmission: Flooded environments increase exposure to leptospirosis and scrub typhus.
    3. Infrastructure corrosion: High humidity and seepage promote mold growth and building decay, undermining structural integrity.
    4. Water contamination: Overflowing sewage and agricultural runoff mix into drinking sources, causing gastrointestinal and waterborne diseases.

    Rising Flood Risk: The Mullaperiyar–Vaigai Connection

    1. Dual monsoon exposure: Kerala receives rainfall from the southwest monsoon, while Tamil Nadu depends on the northeast monsoon. Overlapping patterns cause simultaneous water inflows.
    2. Mullaperiyar Dam’s critical role: Located in Kerala’s Idukki district but operated by Tamil Nadu, the dam diverts water to Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai basin.
    3. Catchment saturation: Heavy rains in Kerala rapidly fill the reservoir, forcing Tamil Nadu to open shutters to ensure dam safety.
    4. Two-directional flooding: Released water flows both toward Kerala’s Periyar basin and Tamil Nadu’s Vaigai, creating cross-border flood pressure.
    5. Ground situation: With all 13 shutters open, Theni district faces submergence even as local rains intensify, turning “shared water” into a shared crisis.

    Infrastructure and Economic Impact

    1. Rising water tables: Continuous rainfall elevates the groundwater level, weakening building foundations and road structures.
    2. Loss of load-bearing capacity: Saturated soil causes foundation shifting, cracks, and collapses in the long term.
    3. Economic burden: Damage repair, relocation, and agricultural losses lead to high fiscal costs for the State exchequer.
    4. Social impact: Displacement, psychological distress, and livelihood loss add a human dimension to the flood crisis.

    Reassessing the “Excess is Good” Paradigm

    1. Changing monsoon patterns: Climate change is causing shorter, more intense bursts rather than steady rainfall, overwhelming absorptive capacity.
    2. Policy recalibration: Tamil Nadu must prioritize water storage optimization, urban resilience, and inter-State coordination.
    3. Adaptive planning: Future strategies must integrate real time dam management, rainwater harvesting, and climate resilient agriculture.

    Conclusion

    Tamil Nadu’s monsoon experience underscores that climate resilience is not merely about rainfall volumes but about water management capacity. Balancing inter-State water sharing, strengthening urban drainage systems, and adopting adaptive agricultural practices are crucial. The Mullaperiyar conundrum reflects the urgent need for cooperative federalism in climate adaptation, a lesson not just for Tamil Nadu but for all monsoon-dependent states in India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Why is the South-West Monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in the Bhojpur region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultural ethos of the region?

    Linkage: The monsoon is a recurring UPSC theme. Tamil Nadu’s experience, where the northeast monsoon defines urban life, agriculture, and inter-State dynamics, parallels Bhojpur’s example. This shows how regional monsoon variations influence both ecological realities and local ethos across India.

  • 200 Years of Kittur Rani Chennamma’s Victory

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Culture is commemorating 200 years of Rani Chennamma’s victory over the British, marking her as a pioneering figure in India’s early anti-colonial resistance.

    200 Years of Kittur Rani Chennamma's Victory

    Who was Rani Chennamma?

    • Birth and Early Life: Born on 23 October 1778 in Kakati village, Belagavi district, Karnataka, to a Lingayat family known for valour and self-reliance.
    • Marriage: Married at the age of 15 to Raja Mallasarja Desai, ruler of Kittur, a small princely state in present-day Karnataka.
    • Ascension to Power: After her husband’s death in 1816, and the death of her only son, she adopted Shivalingappa as her heir to secure the throne.
    • Conflict with the British: The British East India Company rejected the adoption under the Doctrine of Lapse, declaring Kittur annexed to British India.
    • Battle of Kittur (1824): When John Thackery, the British political agent at Dharwad, attacked Kittur with 20,000 troops, she led her army personally and killed Thackery in battle.
    • Resistance and Leadership: Trained in horse-riding, swordsmanship, and military strategy, she employed guerrilla tactics and rallied local soldiers and peasants against British forces.
    • Defeat and Imprisonment: After initial victory, the British reinforced their attack, captured Kittur Fort, and imprisoned her at Bailhongal Fort, where she died in 1829.
    • Historical Position: Recognised as India’s first female freedom fighter, her uprising predates the Revolt of 1857 and symbolizes early defiance against colonial annexation.

    Back2Basics: Doctrine of Lapse

    • Origin: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of India (1848–1856), as a tool of colonial expansion under British East India Company rule.
    • Core Principle: Stated that any princely state without a natural male heir would be annexed by the British; adopted heirs were not recognised.
    • Purpose: Justified British annexations under the pretext of maintaining “good governance” and administrative efficiency.
    • Annexed States: Applied to Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), and Nagpur (1854), among others.
    • Violation of Indian Customs: Contradicted the Indian tradition of adoption and hereditary succession, angering princely rulers across India.
    • Impact on Revolt of 1857: The doctrine became one of the major causes of resentment leading to the First War of Independence (1857).
    • Abolition: The policy was abandoned in 1859, after the end of Company rule and the assumption of power by the British Crown.

     

    [UPSC 2014] What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)?
    1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian States
    2. To place the Indian administration under the British Crown
    3. To regulate East India Company’s trade with India
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Kerala to be declared first State ‘Free of Extreme Poverty’

    Why in the News?

    Kerala will be officially declared free from extreme poverty on November 1st, marking a national first in poverty eradication.

    To assess this, Kerala relied on NITI Aayog’s assessment of Kerala using its Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI).

    What is Extreme Poverty?

    • Overview: According to the World Bank, extreme poverty is defined as living on less than $2.15 per day (2017 Purchasing Power Parity), representing absolute deprivation.
    • Revised Thresholds: In 2025, the World Bank updated the extreme poverty benchmark to $3/day (PPP 2021) for low-income countries, reflecting inflation and rising living costs.
    • Measurement Basis: It uses Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to compare cost of living across countries and Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) data as a proxy for income.
    • Nature: Extreme poverty signifies absolute poverty, unlike relative poverty, which measures inequality within societies.
    • Indicators: It encompasses lack of access to essentials such as food security, safe housing, healthcare, education, clean water, and sanitation.

    Extreme Poverty in India:

    • Overview: India has achieved major success in reducing extreme poverty through inclusive growth and welfare-based redistribution over the past decade.
    • Global Benchmark: As per the World Bank (2025), India’s extreme poverty rate declined from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23), among the fastest reductions globally.
    • Population Impact: Nearly 270 million people were lifted out of extreme poverty; those living below the $3/day threshold fell from 344 million to 75 million.
    • Rural Transformation: The decline was steeper in rural India, supported by flagship programmes like MGNREGA, PM Awas Yojana, National Food Security Act (NFSA), and Ayushman Bharat.
    • Social Protection Role: Expansion of direct benefit transfers (DBT), PDS coverage, and rural employment improved income security and consumption stability.

    What has Kerala achieved?

    • Milestone: Kerala has been officially declared free from extreme poverty as of November 1, 2025, becoming the first Indian state to achieve this feat.
    • Programme Launch: The Extreme Poverty Eradication Programme began in 2021, following one of the first Cabinet decisions of the Left Democratic Front (LDF) government.
    • Scale: Out of 64,006 families identified as extremely poor, 59,277 families have been uplifted after targeted interventions across housing, health, and livelihoods.
    • Interventions:
      • Houses built for 3,913 families and land allotted to 1,338 families.
      • Repairs up to ₹2 lakh provided for 5,651 homes.
      • Essential documents like ration and Aadhaar cards issued to 21,263 individuals.
    • Methodology: Each family was covered through a micro plan, integrating state welfare schemes and social audits with geo-tagged verification.
    • Outcome: Kerala now has 0% extreme poverty, aligning with UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 1) to eradicate poverty by 2030.
    • Significance: The achievement demonstrates Kerala’s model of inclusive governance, where local bodies, irrespective of political control, collaborated to ensure last-mile welfare delivery.
    [UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?
    1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level
    2. Purchasing power parity at national level
    3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level
    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
    (a) 1 only *
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Can rural education stop youth migration?

    Why in the News

    India stands at a demographic crossroads. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2020–21, nearly 29% of India’s population are migrants, with 89% hailing from rural areas. Over half of these migrants are aged 15–25, indicating that the nation’s most productive youth are leaving villages in search of livelihood. This is a turning point in India’s development trajectory, education, once seen as a ladder out of poverty, has lost its power to insulate youth from migration pressures. The mismatch between education and employment, coupled with the pandemic-driven reverse migration, has sparked urgent questions: Can India reimagine rural education and economies to retain its young talent?

    Introduction

    Migration has long shaped India’s economic and social fabric. But what was once seen as a path to progress is now exposing deep cracks in India’s development model. The migration of rural youth to urban centres reflects unmet aspirations, inadequate rural opportunities, and disillusionment with the promise of education.

    The Covid-19 pandemic acted as a brutal reminder, as nearly 40 million workers were forced to return home during the first lockdown. It exposed the vulnerability of India’s informal urban workforce and, simultaneously, revealed the untapped potential of rural revitalization.

    Rethinking the Roots of Migration

    1. Structural Imbalance: Migration is not purely about aspiration; it arises from rural distress and uneven regional development.
    2. Labour Force Data: PLFS data shows rural India continues to be the main supplier of labour, not a site of dignified livelihood.
    3. Educational Mismatch: Graduates are increasingly unemployed, revealing a disconnect between degrees and employable skills.

    Why is Education Failing to Prevent Migration?

    1. Broken Linkage: Education no longer guarantees employment. Youth with degrees often find no dignified jobs in their hometowns.
    2. Graduate Unemployment: India’s expansion of higher education hasn’t translated into job creation, instead, it has produced educated unemployment.
    3. Informal Urban Absorption: About 49% of youth migrants work as daily wage labourers and 39% as industrial workers, mostly on temporary contracts.
    4. Gender Disparity: While 86.8% of women migrate for marriage, most men migrate for work, reflecting limited female labour participation despite mobility.

    Pandemic: A Mirror to Rural Vulnerabilities

    1. Mass Exodus: Nearly 40 million workers returned home in 2020 (RBI, 2020), exposing the fragility of India’s urban informal economy.
    2. Urban Fragility: Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru struggle with slums, pollution, waste, and overcrowding.
    3. Gendered Impact: Young women were more likely to lose jobs and slower to regain them (ILO, 2021), deepening gender inequality.

    Reverse Migration: Stories of Hope and Resilience

    1. Agricultural Revival: Agriculture showed unexpected resilience, with a 39% increase in sown area in 2020 as returning workers revived farmlands.
    2. Success Stories:
      • Balaram Mahadev Bandagale (Raigad, Maharashtra) diversified into mango orchards using irrigation schemes, now earning higher income.
      • Chandrakant Pawar, once a migrant worker, returned to dairy farming and became Sarpanch, a symbol of empowered reverse migration.
    3. These examples highlight the potential of self-reliant rural ecosystems driven by local enterprise and education.

    How Can Rural India Retain Its Youth?

    1. Diversified Rural Employment: Beyond agriculture, India needs to expand into dairy, poultry, food processing, handicrafts, rural logistics, renewable energy, and tourism.
    2. Rural Entrepreneurship: Government schemes like Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana, Start-Up India, and FPO expansion can empower youth — but need integration and youth-focused redesign.
    3. Digital & Renewable Energy Jobs:
      • Solar panel maintenance, microgrid operations, and biofuel units can create decentralized jobs.
      • Digital infrastructure is essential to bridge divides and enable e-commerce, telemedicine, and remote work.
    4. Agri & Eco-Tourism: Leveraging local ecology and culture can create sustainable livelihoods rooted in community pride.

    Changing the Narrative: Migration as a Choice, Not Compulsion

    1. Breaking Stigma: Returning to villages must not be equated with failure. Reverse migrants should be portrayed as innovators, not dropouts.
    2. Portable Social Protection: Schemes for health, education, and pensions should be location-independent, following the worker wherever they go.
    3. Balanced Urban–Rural Growth: Development must prioritize equitable access to education, digital infrastructure, and markets in rural India.

    Conclusion

    India’s youth migration crisis is not merely about movement, it’s about meaning. It questions what development truly offers and whether education still promises empowerment. The path forward lies in integrating rural education with employable skills, expanding decentralized job ecosystems, and redefining success beyond cities. If India invests in its rural potential, migration will no longer be a story of escape, it will become a story of choice, dignity, and empowerment.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

    Linkage: This PYQ directly links with the article’s theme by highlighting how rural distress, weak educational–employment linkages, and uneven regional development push youth towards cities. It reflects the same structural imbalance where urban centres appear as opportunity hubs while villages remain economically stagnant.

  • Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    Why in the News?

    New satellite data in Geophysical Research Letters (October 2025) shows Iran’s Taftan volcano, dormant for 710,000 years, is reactivating.

    Taftan Volcano, Iran 

    About Taftan Volcano:

    • Location: Situated in southeastern Iran, about 56 km from the Pakistan border, within the Makran continental volcanic arc.
    • Elevation: Rises to 3,940 metres (12,927 feet), Iran’s only active volcano in the Makran arc.
    • Tectonic Origin: Formed by subduction of the Arabian oceanic plate beneath the Eurasian continental plate.
    • Volcanic Type & Composition: A stratovolcano composed mainly of andesitic and dacitic lava, with pyroclastic flows and volcanic breccias.
    • Structure: Features two summits, Narkuh and Matherkuh, and extensive ignimbrite and lava fans stretching over 30 km.
    • Hydrothermal Activity: Hosts sulfur-emitting fumaroles, visible from up to 100 km, sustained by an active hydrothermal system.
    • Eruptive History: Major activity phases around 8 Ma, 6 Ma, and 0.7 Ma; last lava flow dated to about 6,950 years ago.
    • Recent Observations: 2023–24 satellite data detected 9 cm ground uplift, indicating subsurface pressure buildup and reclassification from extinct to dormant.

    Scientific Interpretation and Outlook:

    • Magma Dynamics: Uplift linked to gas accumulation or shallow magma intrusion at 490–630 m depth, possibly fed by deeper chambers (~3.5 km).
    • Current Status: No imminent eruption expected; likely pressure release via degassing or minor eruptions.
    • Monitoring Gap: Lack of ground-based GPS or seismic sensors; reliance on satellite InSAR data for deformation tracking.
    • Scientific Recommendations: Call for establishing a volcano observatory in southeastern Iran for real-time monitoring and gas analysis.
    • Regional Significance: Highlights Makran arc tectonic activity and underscores the need for international geophysical collaboration.
    • Research Importance: Taftan’s reawakening demonstrates the role of remote sensing in detecting hidden volcanic unrest and stresses continuous monitoring to assess eruption potential and regional hazard mitigation.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
    1. Pyroclastic debris 2. Ash and dust 3. Nitrogen compounds 4. Sulphur compoundsHow many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) only four*

     

  • Naying Hydroelectric Project

    Why in the News?

    The Naying Hydroelectric Project (1000 MW), proposed on the Siyom (Yomgo) River in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh, represents a major addition to India’s clean energy expansion under the Decade of Hydro Power (2025–35).

    About Siyom (Yomgo) River:

    • Geography: A right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, flowing entirely within Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Origin & Course: Arises in West Siang, travels ~170 km, and joins the Brahmaputra near Assam.
    • Ecology: Basin supports rich biodiversity, agro-pastoral livelihoods, and lies within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
    • Protected Areas: Mouling National Park lies on its eastern bank, part of the Dibang–Siang biosphere landscape.
    • Hydrological Role: Ensures irrigation, microclimate regulation, and provides run-of-the-river potential for clean energy, though demanding careful ecosystem balance.

    About Naying Hydroelectric Project:

    • Overview: A proposed 1,000 MW (4×250 MW) run-of-the-river project located in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Developers: Jointly undertaken by North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) and Arunachal Pradesh Hydropower Corporation Ltd (APHCL).
    • Design & Output: Features a concrete dam, underground powerhouse, and diversion tunnels, expected to generate 4,966.77 GWh annually.
    • Regulatory Approval: Received Central Electricity Authority (CEA) concurrence in 2013; progress slowed by environmental and social concerns.
    • Public Consultation: Environmental hearing scheduled for 12 November 2025 at Yapik Community Hall to assess ecological and community impacts.
    • Timeline: Construction targeted to start by 2028, with commissioning by 2032.
    • Policy Context: Forms part of the state’s Decade of Hydro Power (2025–2035), aiming for 19 GW capacity addition to support India’s net-zero goals.
    • Regional Linkages: Among five key hydel projects in the region – Heo (240 MW), Hirong (500 MW), Tato-I (186 MW), and Tato-II (700 MW).
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Reservoirs – States

    1. Ghataprabha — Telangana

    2. Gandhi Sagar — Madhya Pradesh

    3. Indira Sagar — Andhra Pradesh

    4. Maithon —Chhattisgarh

    Options:

    (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs”

     

  • Delhi Morphological Ridge

    Why in the News?

    The Delhi government has decided to declare 41 sq. km of the Southern Ridge as a reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, following long-pending directions from the National Green Tribunal (NGT).

    Delhi Morphological Ridge

    About Delhi Morphological Ridge:

    • The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
    • It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
    • It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
    • It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
    • It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
    • Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.

    Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:

    • Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
    • A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
    • Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
    • The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
    • Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
    • In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
    • The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
    [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-

    Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years

     

  • Volga River

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.

    Volga River

    About the Volga River:

    • Overview: The longest river in Europe (about 3,500 km), originating in the Valdai Hills northwest of Moscow and flowing southeast to the Caspian Sea at Astrakhan.
    • Drainage Basin: Covers around 1.35 million sq. km, among Europe’s largest river systems, with major tributaries, Kama, Oka, Vetluga, and Sura.
    • Historical Role: Served as a critical front during the Battle of Stalingrad (World War II) and remains central to Russian historical and strategic narratives.
    • Cultural Significance: Revered as “Mother Volga”, symbolising Russian unity, resilience, and identity, deeply embedded in folklore and national consciousness.
    • Economic Importance: It contributes one-fourth of Russia’s agricultural output, supports industrial fishing, and sustains key industries, oil refining, shipbuilding, hydroelectric power.
    • Navigation & Connectivity: Linked to the Baltic, Black, and Caspian Seas through an extensive network of canals and reservoirs, forming the backbone of Russia’s inland transport system.
    • Urban & Industrial Corridor: Major cities like Kazan, Samara, Nizhny Novgorod, and Volgograd lie along its course, forming Russia’s industrial-agricultural heartland.
    • Ecological Richness: Supports about 260 bird species and 70 fish species, making it a key biodiversity hotspot within Eurasia.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into

    1. Mekong: Andaman Sea

    2. Thames: Irish Sea

    3. Volga: Caspian Sea

    4. Zambezi: Indian Ocean

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 2 and 4 only