💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

GS Paper: GS1

  • Ambubachi Mela at Kamakhya Temple

    Why in the News?

    Pilgrims have begun arriving in Guwahati, Assam, for the Ambubachi Mela, held annually at the Kamakhya Temple, one of the most sacred centres of Tantric Shaktism in India.

    About Ambubachi Mela:

    • Festival Overview: Ambubachi Mela is an annual Hindu fertility festival celebrated at the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati, Assam.
    • Timing and Season: It is held during the Assamese month of Ahaar (mid-June), coinciding with the monsoon season.
    • Religious Significance: The festival marks the annual menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya symbolising fertility and life-giving power.
    • Ritual Closure: During the festival, the sanctum sanctorum (innermost sacred chamber) of the temple is closed for three days to observe the goddess’s retreat.
    • Ceremonial Reopening: The temple reopens ceremonially on the fourth day, when lakhs of devotees gather for darshan.
    • Pilgrim Footfall: It is considered the largest religious gathering in Northeast India, with pilgrims arriving from across the country.
    • Etymology: The name ‘Ambubachi’ literally means ‘water flowing’ (denoting menstruation and the flow of life).
    • Spiritual Tradition: The practice is rooted in Tantric traditions (esoteric spiritual practices focusing on divine feminine energy).
    • Cultural Observance: During this time, agricultural activities are halted to honour the goddess’s rest and align with nature’s rhythms.

    Notable Features:

    • No Idol Worship: No idol is worshipped; instead, the process of menstruation itself (biological and divine function) is venerated.
    • Sacred Tokens: Devotees receive pieces of red cloth as sacred amulets.
    • Spiritual Discipline: The mela includes ritual abstentions (temporary renunciation of daily activities), devotional silence, and spiritual observance (religious discipline).

    About Kamakhya Temple:

    • Mythology: It is one of the 51 Shakti Peethas (sacred sites where body parts of Goddess Sati are believed to have fallen).
    • Location: It is located on Nilachal Hill beside the Brahmaputra River in Guwahati, Assam.
    • Architectural Style: Architecturally, the temple follows the Nilachala Style (a blend of North Indian Nagara and Mughal Saracenic architecture).
    • Structural Layout: The structure includes 5 chambers:
      • Garbhagriha (sanctuary where the main deity resides),
      • Antarala (vestibule or connecting passage),
      • Jaganmohan (main audience hall),
      • Bhogmandir (ritual chamber where offerings are made), and
      • Natmandir (hall for performances and religious gatherings).
    • Sacred Symbol: Instead of an idol, the temple houses a yoni-shaped stone (symbol of the goddess’s womb and creative energy).
    • Tantric Centre: It is one of the most revered Tantric pilgrimage sites (destinations for practitioners of spiritual and mystical rituals).
    • Cultural Depth: The temple’s rituals and legends have deep mythological (related to ancient stories and beliefs), astronomical, and cultural significance, especially during Ambubachi.

     

    [UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs : Traditions Communities

    1. Chaliha Sahib Festival — Sindhis

    2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra — Gonds

    3. Wari-Warkari — Santhals

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only *(b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the above

     

  • In news: Prime Ministers Museum and Library 

    Why in the News?

    The 47th Annual General Meeting (AGM) of the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML) Society, chaired by the Prime Minister, was recently held.

    About the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML)

    • Overview: The PMML, earlier called the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), is located at Teen Murti House, just south of Rashtrapati Bhavan in New Delhi.
    • Origin: Built in 1929–30 as the residence of the Commander-in-Chief of British India, it was designed by Robert Tor Russel as part of Lutyens’ Delhi.
    • Nehru’s Residence: After independence, it became the home of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru from 1948 to 1964 and was later dedicated to him following his death.
    • Establishment: The PMML Society was founded on April 1, 1966, while the original museum was inaugurated on November 14, 1964, by President Dr S. Radhakrishnan to commemorate Nehru’s 75th birth anniversary.
    • Renaming in 2023: The name was changed from NMML to PMML to reflect a broader mandate — documenting and honouring all Indian Prime Ministers, not just Nehru.
    • Administrative Structure: PMML is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture, with the Prime Minister of India as the head of the Society.
    • Mission and Scope: The institution promotes advanced research in modern and contemporary Indian history, especially related to Prime Ministers, governance, and the evolution of Indian democracy.
    • Key Institutions: PMML includes:
      • The Pradhanmantri Sangrahalaya (Museum).
      • A world-class library.
      • The Centre for Contemporary Studies.
      • The Nehru Planetarium.

  • 11th International Yoga Day

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister led the celebrations for the 11th International Day of Yoga on 21st June.

    About International Day of Yoga:

    • Celebration: The International Day of Yoga is observed annually on June 21 across the world since 2015, following a UN resolution in 2014.
    • Proposed by India at UN: Prime Minister Narendra Modi proposed the idea during his UN address in September 2014, highlighting yoga’s global relevance.
    • UN Recognition: The resolution was introduced by India’s Permanent Representative and was adopted without a vote, supported by 177 countries.
    • First Observance: The first celebration was held on June 21, 2015, with events in cities like New York, Paris, Beijing, and New Delhi.
    • Purpose of the Day: The day recognizes Yoga’s health benefits, including physical fitness, stress relief, and spiritual well-being.

    Back2Basics: Yoga

    • Origin: Yoga originated in ancient India and is deeply rooted in Indian philosophy, spirituality, and culture.
    • Meaning of Yoga: The word “Yoga” is derived from the Sanskrit root “yuj”, meaning “to join or unite” the mind, body, and spirit.
    • Historical References:
      • Rig Veda and Upanishads: Yoga-like practices are mentioned in the Rig Veda (c. 1500 BCE) and further developed in the Upanishads (800–400 BCE).
      • Patanjali’s Contribution: Sage Patanjali, considered the father of classical yoga, compiled the Yoga Sutras around the 2nd century BCE, outlining a systematic philosophy.
    • Eight Limbs of Ashtanga Yoga (Yoga Sutras)
      1. Yama – Ethical principles (e.g., non-violence, truth).
      2. Niyama – Personal observances (e.g., cleanliness, contentment).
      3. Asana – Physical postures.
      4. Pranayama – Breath control.
      5. Pratyahara – Withdrawal of senses.
      6. Dharana – Concentration.
      7. Dhyana – Meditation.
      8. Samadhi – State of spiritual absorption or self-realization.
    • Schools and Styles of Yoga:
      • Multiple Traditions: Yoga is practiced in various schools, each with distinct methods and focus.
      • Popular Styles: These include Hatha, Vinyasa, Ashtanga, Iyengar, Kundalini, Bikram, and Yin Yoga, catering to both beginners and advanced practitioners.

    Why was 21st June chosen for this day?

    • The date of June 21 was chosen because it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, symbolising spiritual significance across various cultures.
    • In Hindu mythology, this day marks the transition to Dakshinayana and is associated with the first yogi, Shiva, who began teaching yoga to humanity.

    Tap to read more about Summer Solstice (June 21).

     

    [2014] Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

    (a) Mimamsa and Vedanta

    (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika

    (c) Lokayata and Kapalika

    (d) Sankhya and Yoga

     

  • How India ‘added’ more than 3,500 km to its coastline

    Why in the News?

    India’s coastline has increased by about 48%, not because of new land but due to better digital mapping and updated measurements. It has grown from 7,516 km to 11,098 km, giving a clearer view of the country’s natural borders.

    What led to the increase in India’s measured coastline length?

    • Use of High-Resolution Mapping Technology: The shift from low-resolution (1:4,500,000) to high-resolution data (1:250,000) allowed finer measurement of the coastline’s bends and curves. Eg: Modern GIS software captured intricate coastal shapes that older manual methods missed.
    • Inclusion of Previously Omitted Offshore Islands: Many small offshore islands that were earlier not visible or excluded due to manual limitations are now included. Eg: Several minor islands around the Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep regions added extra coastline length.
    • Coastline Paradox and Irregularity of Landforms: Coastlines are naturally irregular; measuring them at a finer scale captures more detail, thus increasing total length. Eg: Like using a one-meter ruler instead of a one-kilometre one—more small features are counted, increasing overall length.

    Why is the coastline paradox relevant to India’s coastal mapping?

    • Scale-Dependent Measurement: The coastline paradox shows that a coastline’s length varies based on the scale or resolution used for measurement—the finer the scale, the longer the coastline appears. Eg: Measuring with 1:250,000 scale data gives a much longer length than with 1:4,500,000 scale data.
    • Irregular Nature of Coastlines: Coastlines are highly irregular, full of bends, curves, and inlets, which get missed at lower resolutions but captured at higher ones. Eg: A low-resolution map smooths out land features, while high-resolution GIS tools map every minor curve.
    • No Fixed Length: The paradox proves that coastlines do not have a finite length—they can always be measured in more detail, leading to ever-changing figures. Eg: Even with current high-tech tools, the actual coastline length keeps increasing with better precision in future reassessments.

    How does reassessing the coastline and islands impact governance and security?

    • Accurate Administrative and Developmental Planning: Reassessment provides a clear understanding of territorial boundaries, aiding in efficient governance and infrastructure development. Eg: Updated coastline data helps plan coastal roads, ports, and disaster response systems in states like Gujarat and West Bengal.
    • Strengthening Maritime Security and Surveillance: Precise mapping helps in identifying vulnerable points, enabling better deployment of naval and coast guard resources. Eg: Mapping of remote islands assists in setting up radar stations and surveillance posts in regions like Lakshadweepand Andaman & Nicobar.
    • Strategic Assertion and Environmental Management: Helps in asserting sovereignty over maritime zones and managing coastal ecosystems more effectively. Eg: Reassessment supports India’s claim over its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and strengthens climate resilienceplanning in coastal areas.

    What challenges exist in accurately counting India’s offshore islands?

    • Ambiguity in Definitions and Tidal Variations: Some landforms may appear as islands during high tide but get connected to the mainland during low tide, causing confusion in classification. Eg: Certain coastal features in Sundarbans and Gulf of Khambhat shift between island and non-island status based on tide levels.
    • Discrepancies Across Agencies and Lack of Standardisation: Different agencies like state governments, Coast Guard, and Surveyor General have reported varying island countsdue to inconsistent definitions and methods. Eg: In 2016, the Surveyor General listed 1,382 islands, while other agencies reported 1,334, leading to a need for data reconciliation.

    Way forward: 

    • Standardised Methodology and Regular Reassessment: Adopt a uniform classification system for islands and coastlines across all agencies, and institutionalise periodic reassessments using high-resolution GIS and satellite data every 10 years.
    • Integrated Coastal Management and Strategic Mapping: Develop a centralised coastal database linking administrative, ecological, and security data to support policy-making, climate resilience, and maritime defence planning.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public health care at the grassroots level.

    Linkage: This article explicitly highlights alcohol consumption as a significant public health issue in India, leading to injuries, mental illness, non-communicable diseases like cancer, and contributing to approximately 2.6 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in 2021.

  • India’s First Epigraphical reference to Halley’s Comet found in Vijayanagar Period

    Why in the News?

    The first Indian inscriptional reference to Halley’s Comet has been discovered on a copper plate dated 1456 CE, from the Vijayanagar Period.

    What does the inscription say?

    • The inscription was found on a copper plate dated June 28, 1456 CE, during the Vijayanagar Empire, preserved at the Sri Mallikarjunaswamy temple in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh.
    • Written in Sanskrit using the Nagari script, it describes the sighting of a comet (dhūmaketu) and a meteor shower, which coincide with the documented appearance of Halley’s Comet that year.
    • The inscription records a village grant made by King Mallikarjuna of Vijayanagar to a Vedic scholar named Limgaṇarya from Kaḍiyalapura (likely present-day Kaḍiyapulanka, Kadapa district).
    • The grant’s purpose is explicitly mentioned: “to mitigate the great calamity believed to arise due to the appearance of a comet and meteor shower”—a reference to traditional beliefs of such celestial events being inauspicious.
    • The Sanskrit phrase “Prakāśyāya mahōtpāta śāntyartham dattavān vibhuḥ” translates to “this grant was made in order to pacify the calamities that may arise due to the illuminating comets and meteor shower upon the king and his kingdom.”
    • Though dhūmaketus (comets) are referenced in ancient Indian astronomical texts, this is the earliest inscriptional record linking a comet to a specific historical date and royal response.

    Tap to read more about the Vijayanagara Empire.

    About Halley’s Comet:

    • Periodicity: It is one of the most famous periodic comets, visible from Earth approximately once every 76 years.
    • Behind its name: It is named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley, who correctly predicted its return in 1758 using Newton’s laws of motion.
    • Early observations: The comet has been recorded by observers around the world for over 2,000 years, including in Babylonian, Chinese, and mediaeval European sources.
    • Latest appearance: Halley’s Comet last appeared in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061.
    • Visibility: It is visible to the naked eye and appears as a bright streak of light with a glowing tail, caused by solar radiation vaporising its icy surface.
    • Significance: Its 1456 CE appearance was especially bright and visible across Europe and Asia, and now, for the first time, it has been identified in an Indian epigraphical record.
    [UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.

    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.

    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • The unregulated drink: rethinking alcohol control in India

    Why in the News?

    India’s rising alcohol use is not just a health issue — it is a major national problem affecting many areas. Even though experts say no amount of alcohol is safe, about one in four Indian men drink. Drinking heavily and often is now becoming more common across the country.

    What are the key risks of alcohol consumption in India?

    • Health Risks and Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): Alcohol significantly increases the risk of cancer, liver disease, cardiovascular issues, and mental illnesses. Eg: Chronic alcohol use is a leading cause of liver cirrhosis and is linked to mouth and throat cancers in India.
    • Injuries and Accidents: Alcohol impairs judgement and coordination, leading to road accidents, falls, and workplace injuries. Eg: A large number of road traffic fatalities in India are associated with drunk driving, particularly among youth.
    • Mental Health and Suicide: Alcohol contributes to depression, anxiety, and is a major risk factor for suicide. Eg: The National Suicide Prevention Strategy (2022) identified alcohol use as a key driver of suicides in India.
    • Violence and Crime: Alcohol consumption is linked with domestic violence, sexual assault, and violent crimes. Eg: NFHS-5 data shows higher incidence of domestic violence in households where alcohol is consumed regularly.
    • Economic and Social Burden: Alcohol use contributes to ₹6.24 trillion in societal costs (2021), including healthcare, lost productivity, and law enforcement. Eg: The burden of alcohol-related diseases adds pressure to India’s public health system, particularly in rural areas.

    Why is a national alcohol policy necessary?

    • Fragmented and Inconsistent State Regulations: Alcohol laws, legal drinking age, pricing, and prohibition vary widely across States, causing regulatory confusion and uneven implementation. Eg: Bihar enforces prohibition, while States like Kerala promote toddy as a “natural beverage” under its Akbari Policy.
    • Public Health Emergency: Rising alcohol consumption is linked to cancer, mental illness, suicides, and injuries, posing a major national health burden. Eg: In 2021, alcohol-related harm caused 2.6 million DALYs and cost India ₹6.24 trillion in societal losses.
    • Lack of Centralised Coordination and Accountability: Regulatory responsibility is scattered across multiple ministries with no unified approach, weakening policy impact. Eg: Demand reduction is handled by the Ministry of Social Justice, while supply and harm reduction are spread across Health, Finance, and Home Affairs ministries.

    Who regulates alcohol demand and supply in India?

    • State governments: Regulate production, distribution, pricing, sale, and consumption.
    • Ministry of Social Justice: Leads demand reduction (e.g., Nasha Mukta Bharat Abhiyan).
    • Ministries of Home Affairs, Finance, and Health: Handle supply and harm reduction.
    • No single authority: Regulatory efforts are scattered and lack coordination.

    How do marketing and digital platforms influence alcohol use?

    • Surrogate Advertising and Brand Promotion: Despite legal restrictions, alcohol brands use surrogate advertising, brand sponsorships, and strategic product placements to maintain visibility. Eg: Alcohol brands often sponsor music festivals and sports events, indirectly promoting their products to younger audiences.
    • Social Media and Algorithmic Amplification: Social media algorithms boost alcohol-related content (ARC), while “alcohol influencers” glamorize drinking and normalize it among youth. Eg: Platforms like Instagram and YouTube promote posts showing alcohol as part of a luxury lifestyle, increasing its social appeal.
    • Attractive Packaging and Retail Tactics: Use of sleek bottles, premium branding, and Happy Hour deals enhance the aspirational value of alcohol and make it more appealing. Eg: Pre-mixed cocktails and flavoured spirits are marketed to attract young and first-time users.

    Way forward: 

    • Formulate a Unified National Alcohol Control Policy: Develop a comprehensive, evidence-based policy that aligns efforts across States and Central ministries, focusing on public health, harm reduction, and regulation of digital content.
    • Invest in Public Awareness and Education: Launch large-scale awareness campaigns highlighting the health risks of alcohol, similar to tobacco control programs, to shift social norms and perceptions. Eg: Educating youth on links between alcohol and mental illness, cancer, and poverty can reduce its aspirational appeal.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public health care at the grassroots level.

    Linkage: This article explicitly highlights alcohol consumption as a significant public health issue in India, leading to injuries, mental illness, non-communicable diseases like cancer, and contributing to approximately 2.6 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in 2021.

  • SMILE Scheme 

    Why in the News?

    Reasi is set to become J&K’s second district after Srinagar to implement the Support for Marginalised Individuals for Livelihood and Enterprise (SMILE) Scheme for marginalised individuals’ dignity and livelihood.

    About the SMILE Scheme:

    • Launch: It was launched in 2022 by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
    • Type: It is a Central Sector Scheme aimed at the rehabilitation of beggars and empowerment of transgender persons.
    • Core Focus: It promotes rehabilitation, livelihood creation, skill development, and social inclusion for the most marginalised individuals.
    • Approach: It merges earlier schemes for transgender persons and those engaged in begging to provide a cohesive welfare framework.
    • Key Features and Components:
      • Shelter Provision: Uses existing shelter homes run by states/UTs; new homes are set up where needed for secure accommodation.
      • Livelihood and Skilling: Offers education, identity documentation, vocational training, and economic linkages to ensure self-reliance.
      • Target Group Size: The scheme aims to benefit approximately 60,000 marginalised individuals, especially transgender persons and urban beggars.
    • Implementation and Funding:
      • Pilot Launch: The first phase started in 30 cities and later expanded to 50 more cities under Phase 2.
      • Survey Mechanism: Local authorities conduct field surveys, with each unit aiming to rehabilitate at least 25 individuals.
      • Financial Allocation: A total of ₹100 crore was allocated for 2023–26, with ₹14.71 crore spent by December 2024 on rehabilitation efforts.
    [UPSC 2016] ‘Rashtriya Garima Abhiyaan’ is a national campaign to:

    (a) rehabilitate the homeless and destitute persons and provide them with suitable sources of livelihood*

    (b) abolish the Child Labour

    (c) salvage the marshy lands and wetlands in the coastal areas and cultivate crops in them

    (d) rehabilitate the manual scavengers and provide them with suitable sources of livelihood

     

  • Legal mandate for One Nation, One Time 

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India has mandated the use of Indian Standard Time (IST) across all legal, commercial, digital, and administrative sectors.

    About Indian Standard Time (IST):

    • It is the official time zone of India, set at Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) +5:30 and based on the 82.5° E longitude passing through Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.
      • Neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka also use the same UTC+5:30 offset.
    • IST meridian passes through 5 Indian states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • It was established in 1906, replacing older regional time zones like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras Time.
    • It is maintained by the National Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL) using ultra-precise atomic clocks, which lose only one second in millions of years.
    • India does NOT observe daylight saving time; IST remains constant throughout the year.

    Back2Basics:

    Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):

    • GMT is the mean solar time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London.
    • It was established in 1884 during the International Meridian Conference as the world’s time standard.
    • It is based on astronomical observations, specifically the mean position of the Sun over time.
    • It does not change with the seasons and does not observe Daylight Saving Time (DST).
    • Although now largely replaced by UTC in scientific and civil contexts, GMT is still used in some regions (e.g., the UK during winter months).

    Coordinated Universal Time (UTC):

    • UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time.
    • It was established in 1960 and is maintained by a network of high-precision atomic clocks worldwide.
    • UTC is adjusted periodically by leap seconds to compensate for the Earth’s irregular rotation speed.
    • It is used in aviation, computing, space science, and by international organisations like the UN and ITU.
    • Unlike GMT, which is purely solar-based, UTC combines atomic time (TAI) with occasional corrections for Earth’s rotation.

    IST in Context:

    • IST = GMT + 5:30
    • IST = UTC + 5:30

     

    Steps to Implement One Nation, One Time:

    [1] Time Dissemination Project:

    • It is a government initiative to ensure accurate, synchronised, and secure timekeeping across India.
    • It is led by the Department of Consumer Affairs, in collaboration with CSIR-NPL and ISRO.
    • Five Regional Reference Standard Laboratories (RRSLs) are being established in Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Faridabad, and Guwahati.
    • These labs use atomic clocks and protocols like Network Time Protocol (NTP) and Precision Time Protocol (PTP) to maintain accuracy within microseconds.

    [2] Legal Metrology (IST) Rules, 2025: Key Provisions

    • Mandatory Use of IST: IST, as maintained by CSIR-NPL, becomes the sole legally recognized time standard in India.
    • Prohibition of Foreign Time Sources: Use of foreign systems like GPS time will be banned unless specifically approved by the government.
    • Sync Requirements: All government bodies, financial institutions, power grids, and telecom operators must synchronize their systems with IST.
    • Audit and Compliance: The system will be monitored through periodic audits and penalties will be imposed for violations.
    • Special Exemptions: Activities such as scientific research, astronomy, and national security operations may use alternative time sources after government approval.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following countries:

    I. United Kingdom II. Denmark III. New Zealand IV. Australia V. Brazil How many of the above countries have more than four time zones?

    (a) All the five (b) Only four * (c) Only three (d) Only two

     

  • [pib] Ancient Assam Fossils Link to Western Ghats Biodiversity 

    Why in the News?

    In Assam’s Makum Coalfield, BSIP scientists found 24–23 million-year-old fossil leaves resembling today’s Nothopegia, now limited to the Western Ghats.

    [pib] Ancient Assam Fossils Link to Western Ghats Biodiversity 

    About the Nothopegia Fossil Discovery

    • Overview: Palaeo-scientists from Lucknow discovered fossil leaves in the Makum Coalfield of Assam. It dates back 24–23 million years to the late Oligocene epoch.
    • Oldest Known Record: These are the oldest known fossils of the Nothopegia genus, a tropical plant now endemic to the Western Ghats, not found in Northeast India today.
    • Identification Methods: Researchers used morphological analysis, herbarium comparisons, and cluster analysis to identify the fossil leaves.
    • Tropical Legacy: Nothopegia belongs to the Anacardiaceae family and reflects ancient tropical ecosystems that once existed in Northeast India.
    • Climate Reconstruction: Using the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP), scientists confirmed that the region once had a warm and humid climate, similar to the present-day Western Ghats.

    Why did Nothopegia disappear from the Northeast?

    • Tectonic Disruption: The collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the rise of the Himalayas, drastically altering climate, rainfall, and wind patterns in Northeast India.
    • Habitat Loss: These shifts caused the region to cool and dry, rendering it unsuitable for tropical flora like Nothopegia.
    • Southward Migration: Over time, the plant spread to the Western Ghats, which offered a climatically stable refuge and allowed its survival.

    Significance of the Study:

    • Climate Lessons: The extinction and migration pattern of Nothopegia illustrates a deep-time example of species response to long-term climate change.
    • Scientific Value: Understanding ancient plant resilience aids in predicting survival pathways under current global warming scenarios.
    • Refuge Significance: The study highlights how climate refuges like the Western Ghats help preserve ancient lineages during major environmental changes.
    [UPSC 2025] Which of the following are the evidence of the phenomenon of continental drift?

    I. The belt of ancient rocks from the Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa. II. The gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side. III. The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) I and III only (b) I and II only (c) I, II and III *(d) II and III only

     

  • In news: Servants of India Society

    Why in the News?

    Pune’s Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics (GIPE) has recently called for a neutral takeover of its parent body, the Servants of India Society (SIS), following allegations of financial irregularities.

    In news: Servants of India Society

    About Servants of India Society:

    • Founding: It was founded on June 12, 1905, in Pune by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, along with N.A. Dravid, G.K. Devadhar, and A.V. Patwardhan.
    • Mission: The Society aimed to train Indians for selfless national service, promote education, and work for social and political reform through constitutional means.
    • Core Values: Members took vows of simple living, secularism, and equality across caste and religion.
    • Non-political Nature: Though non-political and non-sectarian, many SIS members contributed significantly to the freedom movement.
    • Prominent Members: Influential members included V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, Hriday Nath Kunzru, and A.V. Thakkar.
    • Major Activities: SIS established schools, ran night classes, supported healthcare, and published The Hitavada since 1911.
    • Welfare Work: It actively engaged in disaster relief, women’s and child welfare, and rural development.
    • Secular Legacy: It was India’s first secular social reform organisation, focusing on nation-building through service.
    • Current Status: Headquartered in Pune, it continues to operate today, though with limited membership, preserving its foundational values.

    Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915):

    • Early Life: He was a liberal nationalist, senior Indian National Congress leader, and social reformer.
    • Political Journey: He joined the Indian National Congress in 1889 under Justice M.G. Ranade and became Congress President in 1905.
    • Institution Building: In 1905, Gokhale founded the Servants of India Society to train dedicated public servants.
    • Legislative Work: He served in the Bombay Legislative Council (1899) and the Imperial Legislative Council as a non-official member.
    • Reform Advocacy: Gokhale played a major role in securing the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and presented India’s economic conditions to the Welby Commission.
    • Mentor to Gandhi: Gokhale was a political mentor to Mahatma Gandhi and supported his early work, including funding the Sabarmati Ashram.
    • Education and Journalism: He established the Ranade Institute of Economics and launched The Hitavada newspaper (published from Nagpur).
    • Philosophy: Gokhale believed in constitutional reform, education, and social justice as the path to Indian self-rule, bridging social reform and political activism.

     

    [UPSC 2009] Who among the following rejected the title of knighthood and refused to accept a position in the Council of the Secretary of State for India?

    Options: (a) Motilal Nehru (b) M.G. Ranade* (c) G.K. Gokhale (d) B.G. Tilak