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GS Paper: GS1

  • Next Census to conclude by March 2027

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India will conduct its next population census by March 1, 2027, after an unprecedented 16-year gap.

    About the Census of India:

    • Definition: The Census of India is a nationwide decadal exercise that gathers demographic, social, economic, and cultural data from every resident, regardless of citizenship.
    • Authority: It is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General (Ministry of Home Affairs) and Census Commissioner under the Census Act, 1948.
    • Utility: Data from the census is used to formulate policies, redraw electoral boundaries, and implement welfare schemes.

    Significance of the Upcoming Census:

    • Reference Dates: Most of India will use March 1, 2027, while Ladakh, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand will use October 1, 2026.
    • Two-Phase Format: It will be conducted in two stages — House Listing and Housing Schedule, followed by Population Enumeration, which will include caste data.
    • Digital Firsts: This will be India’s first digital census, using a mobile app and offering self-enumeration via an online portal (for NPR-updated households).
    • Preparation: The 24 lakh enumeration blocks identified for the 2021 census will be reused.
    • Delimitation Link: The 84th Constitutional Amendment (2001) mandates that delimitation of constituencies be based on the first census after 2026.
    • Women’s Reservation: The 33% women’s reservation law (128th Amendment) also depends on data from this census.
    • New Inclusion: The upcoming census will include caste enumeration, likely as a plain list, without grouping under OBC.
    • NPR Update: No official announcement has been made regarding an update to the National Population Register (NPR), though it holds data for 119 crore residents.

    History of Census in India:

    1. Ancient Mentions: Rig Veda (800–600 BCE) and Arthashastra (321–296 BCE) mentioned population counting for taxation and governance.
    2. Early Colonial Efforts:
      • Partial censuses conducted in Allahabad (1824), Banaras (1827–28), and Dacca (1830).
      • Fort St. George conducted returns in 1836–37; quinquennial returns started in Madras (1851–67).
    3. First Attempted Pan-India Census:
      • 1872: Non-synchronous census; not all British territories covered.
      • 17 questions were asked via a house register.
    4. First Modern Census:
      • 1881: Conducted under W.C. Plowden; considered the first synchronous and scientific census of India.
      • Covered most of British India except Kashmir, French & Portuguese territories.
    5. Subsequent Censuses (1891–1941):
      • Held every 10 years: 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, and 1941.
      • Introduced and refined questions on caste, religion, language, literacy, occupation, disability, etc.
    6. 1941 Census:
      • Conducted during World War II under difficult conditions.
      • Introduced sampling, and used individual slips for detailed data.

    Caste Enumeration to Begin:

    • Caste data was last collected in 1931, excluding SC/ST information.
    • Post-1951 Trend: From 1951 to 2011, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes data were recorded.
    • SECC 2011: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census included caste data, but it was never released.
    • Data Entry Field: A new drop box for caste will be added beside the existing SC/ST section.
    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.

    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

  • Integral Humanism: The Philosophy of Deendayal Upadhyay

    Why in the News?

    A mainstream political party is celebrating 60 years of Integral Humanism (Ekatm Manav-vad), a political philosophy introduced by Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya.

    About Deendayal Upadhyaya and His Contributions:

    • Birth and Legacy: Born on September 25, 1916, in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; his birth anniversary is marked as Antyodaya Diwas since 2014.
    • RSS and BJS Roles: He was a pracharak of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and co-founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS).
    • Leadership: Served as President of BJS, laying its ideological foundation.
    • Antyodaya Concept: Coined “Antyodaya”, meaning upliftment of the last person, central to several welfare schemes.
    • Advocated Ideas: Promoted Swadeshi (self-reliance) and decentralization of power for inclusive development.
    • Inspired Schemes:
    • Mysterious Death: Found dead on February 11, 1968, near Mughalsarai railway station, now renamed Deendayal Nagar. The case remains unresolved.

    His Philosophy of Integral Humanism:

    • Introduction: Proposed in 1965 through four lectures in Mumbai, promoting Indian values over foreign ideologies.
    • Core Idea: Aims for holistic development — body, mind, intellect, and soul — grounded in cultural and spiritual ethics.
    • Chiti and Dharma: Defined ‘Chiti’ as the soul of the nation and ‘Dharma’ as the ethical base of national integrity.
    • Six Economic Objectives:
      1. Minimum living standard for all citizens.
      2. Global welfare through Indian values.
      3. Employment for all able-bodied individuals.
      4. No wastage of natural resources.
      5. Promotion of indigenous technology.
      6. Flexible industrial ownership based on practicality.
    • Further Influence: Expanded by Dattopant Thengdi, founder of Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS).
    • Intellectual Roots: Drew inspiration from Daishik Shastra (1923), a text respected by Gandhi and Tilak; studied during a visit to Almora in 1958–59.
    [UPSC 2020] One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is:

    Options: (a) the final goal of a stateless society * (b) class struggle. (c) abolition of private property. (d) economic determinism.

     

  • Kheer Bhawani Festival

    Why in the News?

    The recent terror attack in Pahalgam has led to lower turnout at the annual Jyestha Ashtami festival at the Kheer Bhawani temple in Kashmir.

    About the Kheer Bhawani Festival:

    • What is it: The Kheer Bhawani Festival, also called Mela Kheer Bhawani, is celebrated every year on Jyestha Ashtami by the Kashmiri Pandit community.
    • Location of Celebration: It takes place at the Kheer Bhawani Temple in Tulmulla village, Ganderbal district, Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Deity Worshipped: The temple is dedicated to Goddess Ragnya Devi, an important deity in the Kashmiri Hindu tradition.
    • Sacred Spring and Ritual: The temple sits over a natural spring. Devotees offer kheer (rice and milk pudding) as a sacred offering.
    • Largest Kashmiri Hindu Gathering: It is the biggest Hindu religious gathering in the Kashmir Valley after the Amarnath Yatra.
    • Beliefs about Water Color: Devotees believe that the spring’s color changes based on the region’s condition:
      • Light colors mean good times.
      • Black water is a warning sign (reportedly turned black in 1990, just before the Kashmiri Pandit Massacre).
    • Historical Legacy: The temple structure was built by Maharaja Pratap Singh and later renovated by Maharaja Hari Singh in the early 1900s.
    • Ancient Mentions: References to the site are found in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini, Bhrigu Samhita, and Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, which also mentions flooding in Tula Mula.

    Significance of the Festival and Temple:

    • Cultural Importance: The temple serves as a symbol of faith and identity for Kashmiri Pandits, especially those displaced.
    • Communal Harmony: Local Muslim communities assist in festival arrangements, showcasing communal unity and harmony.
    • Spiritual Symbolism: The temple spring, called Syandh, holds spiritual meaning and is not connected to the Sindhu (Indus) River.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Tradition – State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only  (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • What if China stops Brahmaputra Water? 

    Why in the News?

    Assam CM Himanta Biswa Sarma dismissed Pakistan’s claim about China blocking the Brahmaputra’s water as a baseless panic tactic with no scientific substance.

    Sarma’s Clarification on the Brahmaputra Issue:

    • Brahmaputra is an Indian river and not fully controlled by China.
    • Only about 30–35% of the river’s flow comes from China, mainly through glacial melt and rainfall on the Tibetan Plateau.
    • A major 65–70% of the river’s volume is generated within India, especially from monsoon rains and Indian tributaries.
    • He explained that the river’s flow increases from 2,000–3,000 cubic metres/second at the Indo-China border to 15,000–20,000 mÂł/s in Assam during the monsoon.
    • This proves that India plays a dominant role in sustaining the river, not China.
    • Even if China tried to restrict the river’s flow, it could help reduce annual floods in Assam that displace thousands of people.
    • He confirmed that China has never threatened to weaponize the Brahmaputra.

    About Brahmaputra River System:

    • The Brahmaputra River System is one of the major Himalayan drainage systems, along with the Ganga and Indus.
    • Stretch: It stretches over 2,900 kilometres, making it one of the longest rivers in Asia.
    • Origin: It originates in the Chemayungdung glacier in southwestern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo River.
    • Catchment countries:
      • The river flows through Tibet, India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), and Bangladesh.
      • In Tibet, the river flows slowly with a wide, navigable channel for about 640 km.
      • Upon entering India through Arunachal Pradesh, it becomes the Dihang, and later merges with Lohit and Dibang rivers to be called the Brahmaputra.
      • In Bangladesh, it is called the Jamuna, which merges with the Ganga (Padma) and Meghna before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
    • The world’s largest and smallest river islands, Majuli and Umananda, are located on the Brahmaputra in Assam.
    • Important Tributaries:
      • Left-bank tributaries: Lhasa, Nyang, Parlung Zangbo, Lohit, Dhanashri, Kolong
      • Right-bank tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Beki, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
    • States the River Flows Through in India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
    • Major Cities on the River: Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur, and Guwahati.
    • Major Hydel Projects:
      • Arunachal Pradesh: Subansiri, Kameng, Ranganadi, etc.
      • Assam: Kopili
      • Sikkim: Teesta, Rangit
      • Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram: Multiple local hydropower stations
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Brahmaputra River, which of the following is/are tributary/ tributaries of Brahmaputra?

    1. Dibang

    2. Kameng

    3. Lohit

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3*

     

  • D Gukesh defeats World no.1 Magnus Carlsen 

    Why in the News?

    D Gukesh, the reigning World Chess Champion, achieved a milestone by defeating world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen for the first time in a classical game during Round 6 of Norway Chess.

    Who is D. Gukesh?

    • About: D Gukesh is an Indian chess grandmaster (born on May 29, 2006) and the current World Chess Champion.
    • Early Start: He started playing chess at the age of seven and quickly rose to fame due to his extraordinary skill.
    • Topmost Indian Player: In September 2023, he became India’s highest-rated chess player, ending Viswanathan Anand’s 37-year reign.
    • Global Recognition: He is considered one of the most talented chess prodigies in the world today.

    His Accomplishments:

    • FIDE Master Title: In 2015, he became a FIDE Master after winning the Under-9 Asian School Chess Championship.
    • International Master: In March 2018, he became an International Master at the age of 11.
    • Grandmaster Milestone: At 12 years and 7 months, he became the second-youngest Grandmaster in history.
    • World Youth Champion: He won the Under-12 World Youth Chess Championship in 2018.
    • Asian Youth Success: He won five gold medals at the 2018 Asian Youth Championships in classical, rapid, blitz, and team events.
    • Chess Olympiad 2022: In the 44th Chess Olympiad, he won individual gold on board one and helped India win team bronze.
    • Victory Over Carlsen: In 2022, he defeated Magnus Carlsen in rapid chess at the Aimchess Rapid tournament.
    • Crossed 2700 Elo: He crossed the 2700 Elo rating in 2022, becoming the third-youngest to achieve it.
    • Broke Carlsen’s Record: In August 2023, he crossed 2750 Elo, becoming the youngest ever to do so.
    • Candidates Tournament: He won the 2024 Candidates Tournament, becoming the youngest player to ever win it.
    • World Champion Title: On December 12, 2024, at 18 years and 195 days, he defeated Ding Liren to become the youngest undisputed World Chess Champion.
    • Indian Chess Legacy: He became only the second Indian after Viswanathan Anand to win the world title.
    • Chess Olympiad 2024: At the 45th Chess Olympiad, he helped India win team gold and secured individual gold.
    • National Honour: In January 2025, he received the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award, India’s highest sporting honour.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. In the finals of the 45th Chess Olympiad held in 2024, Gukesh Dommaraju became the world’s youngest winner after defeating the Russian player Ian Nepomniachtchi.

    II. Abhimanyu Mishra, an American chess player, holds the record of becoming world’s youngest ever Grandmaster.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: a) I only b) II only* c) Both I and II d) Neither I nor II

     

  • Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Why in the News?

    A recent archaeological survey has confirmed that Daojali Hading, located in Assam’s Dima Hasao district, was a Neolithic habitation zone over 2,700 years ago.

    About Daojali Hading Neolithic Site:

    • Location: It is an important Neolithic archaeological site located in Dima Hasao district, Assam, within the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest.
    • How old is it: Recent surveys by a multidisciplinary team have confirmed the site as a settled Neolithic habitation zone, over 2,700 years old.
    • Key discoveries:
      • Furnace remains and iron slag, indicating early metallurgical activity.
      • Cord-marked pottery, grinding stones, mortars and pestles, and polished stone tools such as arrowheads, celts, and adzes.
    • Significance: These findings suggest that Daojali Hading was not just a tool-making site, but a functioning settlement where people lived, cooked, crafted tools, and worked with metals.

    Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Back2Basics: Neolithic Period in India

    • The Neolithic Age in India began around 7,000 B.C. and lasted until 1,000 B.C. It is the final phase of the Stone Age, following the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages.
    • This period is marked by:
      • The beginning of settled agriculture andthe  domestication of animals.
      • Use of polished stone tools like axes, celts, and chisels.
      • Construction of mud and reed houses, sometimes using mud bricks.
      • Introduction of pottery in forms like grey ware, black burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
      • A community lifestyle with shared ownership of land and tools.
    • Neolithic people in India grew wheat, barley, rice, cotton, horse gram, and ragi, and domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.
    • They lived in circular or rectangular houses, near rivers and lakes, and relied on hunting, fishing, and early farming.

    Major Neolithic Sites in India:

    Region Site Key Features
    North-Western India Burzahom (Kashmir) Pit dwellings, stone tools, and animal domestication
    Gufkral (Kashmir) Early agriculture and handmade pottery
    North India Chirand (Bihar) Polished tools, fishing economy
    North-East India Daojali Hading (Assam) Discussed above.
    South India Utnur (Andhra Pradesh) Large stone structures, farming tools
    Pakistan (Indian Subcontinent) Mehrgarh (Balochistan) Earliest Neolithic site, settled farming, and granaries

     

    [UPSC 2021] Question: Consider the following pairs:

    Historical place: Well known for

    1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

    2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art

    3. Ganeshwar: Copper artefacts

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

     

  • 600-million-year-old stromatolites in the Himalayas tell the story of an ocean lost and Earth’s first breath

    Why in the News?

    A huge 600-million-year-old group of stromatolites was found in Chambaghat, Himachal Pradesh, sparking new interest in India’s ancient rocks and the early history of life on Earth.

    What are Stromatolites?

    Stromatolites are layered, reef-like structures formed by ancient blue-green algae called cyanobacteria. These tiny microbes trapped and bound sediments in shallow seas, creating mineral mounds over millions of years. They are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth.

    How do they contribute to understanding Earth’s early history?

    • Earliest Evidence of Life: Stromatolites, built by cyanobacteria over 3.5 billion years ago, are among the oldest records of life on Earth. Eg: Stromatolites in Australia date back to 3.6 billion years, showing microbial activity long before complex life existed.
    • Oxygen Production and Atmospheric Change: Cyanobacteria in stromatolites performed photosynthesis, releasing oxygen and leading to the Great Oxidation Event(~2.4 billion years ago). Eg: This oxygenation made the atmosphere suitable for the evolution of multicellular organisms.
    • Tectonic and Environmental Insights: Their presence in now-mountainous regions like Chambaghat in Himachal Pradesh, originally shallow seas, reveals tectonic shifts and lost oceans. Eg: The Chambaghat stromatolites formed in the Tethys Sea, later uplifted to the Himalayas by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

    Where was the recent significant stromatolite outcrop discovered? 

    A large outcrop was discovered in Chambaghat, Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. It is located in the pine-clad ridges at around 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. It belongs to the Krol Group, sedimentary rocks formed in the ancient Tethys Sea.

    Why is it unique?

    • Large and Well-Preserved Outcrop: The Chambaghat site features an extensive hill covered with stromatolites, not just a few isolated samples. Eg: Unlike other Indian sites where stromatolites are scattered or small, Chambaghat has a whole hill full of these structures, making it exceptional in scale and preservation.
    • Relatively Young Stromatolites in a High-Altitude Location: These stromatolites date back about 600 million years and are found at an altitude of 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. Eg: Their presence so high in the Himalayas tells a story of tectonic uplift, where ancient shallow marine depositswere pushed up from the Tethys Sea due to India’s collision with Eurasia.
    • Accessible and Visible Geological Heritage: The site is easily accessible and visible to researchers, locals, and tourists, making it a prime candidate for preservationand education. Eg: Many stromatolite sites in India are obscure or hard to reach, but Chambaghat offers a natural exhibit that could help raise public awareness about Earth’s early history.

    Why is there scientific disagreement about the importance of the Chambaghat stromatolites?

    • Not True Fossils but Biosedimentary Structures: Some scientists argue that stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures, formed by trapped sediments and calcium carbonate, rather than preserved fossils of organisms. Eg: fossils are inaccurate because the original organisms are not preserved, only the structures formed by cyanobacteria.
    • Common and Widespread Geological Features: Stromatolites are found all over India and globally, so some experts feel the Chambaghat stromatolites are not a rare or unique discovery. Eg: The oldest stromatolites in India, like those in Dharwad, Karnataka (2,500 million years old), and worldwide (3.6 billion years old in Australia) are much older and more significant.
    • Not the Oldest or Most Unique Evidence of Life: While Chambaghat stromatolites are impressive, they are relatively young compared to other sites and not the earliest proof of life. Eg: Dr Arun Deep Ahluwalia notes that stromatolites in the Krol Belt are the youngest stromatolites, making them less important for studying the very earliest life forms.

    What is the significance of preserving stromatolite sites like Chambaghat? 

    • Educational and Scientific Value: Preserving stromatolite sites helps in studying Earth’s early life and geological history, providing valuable insights into how oxygenation of the atmosphere led to complex life. Eg: Chambaghat’s stromatolites can be used as an exhibit for students and researchers to understand the origin of life and ancient marine environments.
    • Cultural and Geoheritage Importance: Protecting these sites promotes public awareness and tourism, fostering a sense of pride and responsibility towards India’s unique geological heritage. Eg: Creating a Geoheritage Park at Chambaghat can engage locals, tourists, and schools, preserving the site while boosting local economy and education.

    Way forward: 

    • Formal Protection and Geoheritage Park Development: Declare Chambaghat stromatolite site a protected geological monument and develop it into a Geoheritage Park to ensure conservation, promote scientific research, and boost geo-tourism.
    • Public Awareness and Educational Outreach: Launch educational programs and community engagement initiatives involving schools, researchers, and local stakeholders to increase awareness about the site’s scientific and cultural significance.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also?

    Linkage: The growing importance of cryptocurrency, its disruptive potential in global finance, and its implications for India, specifically mentioning India’s significant number of crypto users. This PYQ demonstrates the UPSC’s interest in the fundamental understanding and societal effects of this technology.

  • 300th Birth Anniversary of Lokmata Ahilyabai Holkar 

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister paid tributes to Lokmata Ahilyabai Holkar on her 300th birth anniversary.

    About Ahilyabai Holkar:

    • Early Life: Born on May 31, 1725, in Chondi village, (in erstwhile Ahilyanagar District) Maharashtra, Ahilyabai belonged to the Shephard community. Her father, a village head, taught her to read and write—rare for girls then.
    • Marriage and Loss: Married to Khande Rao Holkar in 1733, she was widowed in 1754. Her father-in-law, Malhar Rao Holkar, saw her potential and stopped her from committing sati.
    • Rise to power: After the deaths of her husband, father-in-law, and son, she became ruler of Malwa in 1765 with support from the Peshwa and her army.
    • Capital and Leadership: She moved the capital to Maheshwar, making it a centre of culture, governance, and trade.
    • Military and Administration: Ahilyabai personally led armies and appointed Tukoji Rao Holkar as military commander. She promoted justice, welfare, and agricultural growth.

    Legacy and Contributions:

    • Temple Restoration: Rebuilt presend-day Kashi Vishwanath Temple in 1780 and renovated shrines across India, including in Somnath, Haridwar, Pushkar, and Rameswaram.
    • Pilgrim Support: Built rest houses, pilgrim shelters, and ghats to support religious travellers.
    • Maheshwari Sari and Weavers: Promoted the handloom industry, empowering local weavers and women economically.
    • Social Reforms: Protected widows’ rights, supported tribal communities, and ran a secular and inclusive administration.
    • Cultural Patronage: Her court welcomed poets and scholars, including Moropant and Khushali Ram, making Maheshwar an intellectual hub.
    • Peaceful Rule: Her 30-year reign was free from war, making Malwa a rare place of peace and prosperity in a chaotic era.
    • Recognition: Jawaharlal Nehru called her an able ruler; British historian John Keay called her “The Philosopher Queen”.
    • Ongoing Honour: A proposal exists to rename Ahmednagar in Maharashtra as Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar in her memory.
    [UPSC 2009] With reference to Stree Shakti Puraskar, for which of the following is ‘Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Award’ given?

    Options: (a) Administrative skills (b) Achievements in Scientific Research (c) Achievements in Sports and Games (d) Courage and valour*

     

  • Birth Anniversary of Veer Savarkar

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister paid tributes to Veer Savarkar on his birth anniversary on May 28th.

    About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

    Details
    Who was Veer Savarkar? • Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra,
    • Founded the Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) with his brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar for armed resistance.
    • Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society.
    • Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
    • Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943).
    • Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death.
    His Contributions • Advocated armed revolution against British rule.
    • Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion.
    • Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity.
    • Championed military nationalism over passive resistance.
    • Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements.
    Literary Works • The First War of Indian Independence (1909):  Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle.
    • Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva.
    • My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail.
    • Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders.
    Controversies • Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence.
    • Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising.
    • Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favoured military strength over civil disobedience.
    • Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity.

     

    [UPSC 2008] During the Indian Freedom Struggle, who of the following raised an army called ‘Free Indian Legion’?

    Options: (a) Lala Hardayal (b) Rashbehari Bose (c) Subhas Chandra Bose * (d) V.D. Savarkar

     

  • Places in news: Mt. Khangchendzonga

    Why in the News?

    Sikkim’s CM has asked the Centre to ban climbing on Mt. Khangchendzonga, even from the Nepal side, as the mountain is sacred to the Sikkimese and seen as a guardian deity.

    About Mt. Khangchendzonga:

    • Location: Mt. Khangchendzonga is the third-highest mountain in the world at 8,586 metres, located on the India-Nepal border in the eastern Himalayas.
    • Major Glaciers and Rivers: It is surrounded by Zemu, Talung, Yalung, and Kanchenjunga glaciers and bordered by rivers like Tamur, Lhonak, and Teesta.
    • Etymology: Known as the “Five Treasuries of the Great Snow”, due to its five towering peaks, all above 8,000 metres.
    • Geological Age: The mountain rocks are between 445 million to 1 billion years old, from the Neoproterozoic to Ordovician periods.
    • Ecological Zone: Located within Khangchendzonga National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, rich in altitude diversity and rare species.
    • Wildlife and Ecosystems: Home to snow leopards, red pandas, musk deer, and Asiatic black bears, along with over 220 glacial-fed water bodies.
    • Hydrological Importance: It is the highest point in the Brahmaputra basin, contributing water to both the Ganges and Kosi River systems.
    • Climate: Receives heavy monsoon snowfall and lighter winter snow.

    Religious and Cultural Significance:

    • Spiritual Status: The mountain is sacred in Sikkim and Nepal, embedded in local mythology and Buddhist traditions.
    • Symbolism of the Name: The “5 Treasuries” are believed to hold salt, gold, turquoise, sacred texts, grain, medicine, and other treasures.
    • Guardian Deity: It is considered the home of Dzoe-Nga, the chief protector deity of Sikkim, known as Pho-lha.
    • Mythological Roots: Local guardian deities were blessed by Guru Padmasambhava, the patron saint of Sikkim.
    • Climbing Ban: The Sikkim government banned climbing on the mountain in 1998 and 2001 under the Sacred Places of Worship Act, 1991, to preserve its sanctity.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:

    Peak: Mountains

    1. Namcha Barwa — Garhwal Himalaya

    2. Nanda Devi — Kumaon Himalaya

    3. Nokrek — Sikkim Himalaya

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only