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GS Paper: GS1

  • [22nd July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Water, energy demand spotlights risk of human-induced quakes 

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2020] Discuss the geophysical characteristics of Circum-Pacific Zone.

    Linakge: This question is about a region known for earthquakes and volcanoes. The article mainly talks about quakes caused by human activity but also mentions that these usually happen in places already on fault lines or where tectonic plates are shifting—areas like the Circum-Pacific. So, it’s important to understand these natural zones when looking at how human actions might trigger earthquakes.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  Human-induced earthquakes are increasingly drawing scientific and public attention, as research shows that human activities like groundwater extraction, dam construction, and fracking can trigger or accelerate seismic activity, particularly in tectonically sensitive regions such as Delhi-NCR, the Western Ghats, and parts of Maharashtra and Kerala.

    Today’s editorial analyses the Issues related to Human-induced earthquakes in India. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Geography), GS Paper II (Governance) and  GS Paper III (Disaster Management) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recent studies in India have highlighted a correlation between excessive groundwater depletion and increased seismic events, especially in Delhi.

    What are human-induced earthquakes?

    • These are earthquakes triggered by human activities rather than natural tectonic movements. Activities like mining, groundwater extraction, building dams, and fracking disturb the earth’s crust, causing seismic activity. Over 700 human-induced quakes have been recorded globally in the last 150 years.

     

    How do activities like groundwater extraction and dams trigger quakes in India?

    • Groundwater Depletion Weakens Crustal Stability: Excessive extraction of groundwater reduces pore pressure, leading to a shift in stress within the earth’s crust. Eg: In Delhi-NCR, increased seismic activity between 2003–2012 has been linked to excessive groundwater loss.
    • Reservoir-Induced Seismicity (RIS): The weight of large reservoirs exerts additional pressure on underlying faults, triggering quakes. Eg: The 1967 Koynanagar earthquake (magnitude 6.3) was linked to the Koyna Dam in Maharashtra.
    • Water Infiltration into Fault Zones: Water from reservoirs or excessive irrigation can seep deep into fault lines, lubricating them, and making them more likely to slip. Eg: Seismic tremors near Mullaperiyar Dam in Kerala are suspected to be induced due to water infiltration in a seismically sensitive region.
    • Load Variation Due to Filling and Emptying of Dams: Rapid filling or draining of reservoirs changes the stress distribution, causing small or moderate tremors. Eg: In the Himalayan region, such stress changes are a concern for dams like Tehri Dam.
    • Ground Subsidence from Overuse of Aquifers: Excessive groundwater extraction leads to land subsidence, altering the natural equilibrium of stress in the crust. Eg: Regions in North Gujarat have experienced subsidence, making them more vulnerable to fault reactivation and quakes.

    Why is Delhi-NCR prone to quakes from groundwater loss?

    • Rapid Groundwater Depletion Alters Stress Fields: Excessive groundwater extraction reduces the hydrostatic pressure underground, disturbing the natural stress balance in fault zones. This stress redistribution can reactivate dormant faults, triggering seismic activity. Eg: Studies from 2003–2012 show increased microseismic activity in parts of Gurgaon and Faridabad, correlated with falling water tables.
    • Aquifer-Related Land Subsidence: Continuous overuse of aquifers causes the land to sink (subsidence), which can strain the Earth’s crust and disturb nearby fault lines. In Delhi-NCR, land sinking has been recorded in Dwarka, Kapashera, and parts of Noida, increasing quake risk. Eg: A 2021 study by IIT-Kanpur showed that excessive aquifer use led to ground subsidence and elevated seismic hazard.
    • Built-Up Pressure on Seismically Active Faults: Delhi-NCR sits near the Mahendragarh-Dehradun fault and Delhi-Haridwar ridge, making it naturally earthquake-prone. When groundwater is extracted, it weakens the structural resistance of rocks, making nearby active faults more vulnerable. Eg: Minor tremors in Rohini and West Delhi (2020-21) were suspected to be linked to combined stress from tectonics and human activity.

    How does climate change contribute to seismic risks?

    • Melting Glaciers Increase Uplift Pressure: Rapid glacial melt in the Himalayas (due to rising temperatures) reduces surface weight. This triggers isostatic rebound — the crust rises and shifts, which can activate faults beneath. Eg: In Uttarkashi (Uttarakhand), increased seismic activity has been observed near retreating Gangotri Glacier, linked to glacial thinning and uplift.
    • Changing Rainfall Patterns Cause Landslides and Crustal Stress: Intense rainfall and flash floods (exacerbated by climate change) cause rapid groundwater recharge and erosion, disturbing fault stability. Eg: In Kodagu (Karnataka), unusually heavy rains in 2018 triggered landslides and minor tremors due to destabilized slopes and crustal shifts.
    • Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Seismic Pressure: Rising sea levels increase water load on coastal plates, especially in delta regions. This can suppress or activate tectonic stresses near coastlines. Eg: In Sundarbans (West Bengal), changes in sediment load and sea-level rise have raised concerns of future seismic risks in this low-lying, tectonically sensitive zone.
    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    •  Seismic Zoning and Monitoring: India is divided into four seismic zones (II to V) to prioritize risk-based planning. The National Centre for Seismology (NCS) monitors seismic activity across the country in real-time.
    • Implementation of Earthquake-Resistant Building Codes: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has issued IS codes for earthquake-resistant construction.
    • Capacity Building and Public Awareness: NDMA and NDRF conduct training, mock drills, and awareness programs in vulnerable areas.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrated Land and Water Management: Promote sustainable groundwater use, recharge practices, and land-use planning to reduce land subsidence and seismic vulnerability.
    • Expand Monitoring and Preparedness: Enhance seismic monitoring networks and public awareness programs to improve early warning systems and disaster resilience.

  • In news: Kamchatka Peninsula

    Why in the News?

    Five strong offshore earthquakes hit Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, the strongest measuring 7.4 in magnitude.

    Kamchatka Peninsula

    About Kamchatka Peninsula:

    • Location: Situated in Far Eastern Russia, bordered by the Sea of Okhotsk (west) and the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea (east).
    • Size and Shape: Stretches about 1,200 km north to south and 480 km at its widest point.
    • Area: Covers approximately 370,000 square kilometers—comparable in size to New Zealand.
    • Ethnic Composition: Majority are ethnic Russians; around 13,000 belong to the indigenous Koryak community.
    • Climate: Harsh with long, snowy winters and wet, cool summers.
    • Topography: Highest peak is Klyuchevskaya Sopka, an active volcano in the Eastern Mountain Range.
    • Global Recognition: Hosts the “Volcanoes of Kamchatka,” a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

    Tectonic Significance:

    • Geological Setting: Lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, making it a global hotspot for seismic and volcanic activity.
    • Volcanic Density: Contains over 150 volcanoes, 29 of which are currently active.
    • Kuril–Kamchatka Trench: Located just offshore, reaches depths of about 10,500 meters and drives regional seismicity.
    • Tectonic Cause: Caused by subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate.
    [UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:

    1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault

    3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks

    Which of the above cause earthquakes?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

  • In news: King Rajendra Chola I

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister will attend a function in Tamil Nadu marking 1000 years since King Rajendra Chola I’s conquest of the Gangetic plains.

    In news: King Rajendra Chola I

    About Rajendra Chola I:

    • Reign & Dynasty: Ruled from 1014 to 1044 CE, succeeding his father Rajaraja Chola I.
    • Titles:
      • Gangaikonda Cholan (“Bringer of the Ganges”) – adopted after his victorious northern campaign.
      • Kadaram Kondan (“Conqueror of Kedah (Malaysia)”) – earned following his Southeast Asian naval expeditions.
    • Capital Foundation: Established Gangaikonda Cholapuram, shifting the capital from Thanjavur to the Kollidam River area.
    • Temple Building: Built the Gangaikondacholeshwaram (Shiva) Temple to commemorate his conquests.
    • Succession: Succeeded by his son, Rajadhiraja I.
    • Religious Policy:
      • Devout Shaivite, but practiced religious pluralism—patronised Buddhism, including building stupas in South India and Southeast Asia.
    • Diplomacy & Trade: Strengthened international ties with Song Dynasty China and Arab merchants.
    • Administration: Pioneered local self-governance, showcasing notable administrative sophistication.

    chola

    His Legend:

    • Northern Conquest: Rajendra led a military campaign to the Gangetic plains, defeating the Pala ruler Mahipala of Bengal and Bihar, and commemorated this victory by bringing Ganga water to his capital.
    • Overseas Expeditions: He commanded what is considered the largest blue-water navy in Indian history. Successfully conducted naval expeditions to:
      • Srivijaya Empire (covering parts of modern-day Sumatra, Java, and Malaysia)
      • Burma, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Maldives, and Pegu Islands
      • Extracted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.
      • First Indian king to undertake large-scale overseas military campaigns.
    • Trade and Diplomacy: Established trade and diplomatic links with Song China and Arab merchants.
    • Administration: Promoted local self-governance, showcasing the Cholas’ administrative efficiency.
    • Wealth and Power: Under his reign, the Chola Empire became one of the wealthiest and most powerful empires of the time.
    [UPSC 2025] Who among the following led a successful military campaign against the kingdom of Srivijaya, the powerful maritime state, which ruled the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands?

    Options: (a) Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta) (b) Prataprudra (Kakatiya) (c) Rajendra I (Chola) * (d) Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala)

     

  • In news: Mangal Pandey (1827-1857)

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister paid tribute to the great freedom fighter Mangal Pandey on his birth anniversary.

    Who was Mangal Pandey?

    • Birth: Born on 19 July 1827 in Nagwa village, Ballia district, Uttar Pradesh.
    • Military Service: Joined the British East India Company’s army in 1849 as a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry at Barrackpore.
    • Trigger of Revolt: Opposed the use of Enfield rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat, offensive to religious beliefs.
    • Rebellion: On 29 March 1857, attacked British officers and encouraged sepoys to rise in revolt.
    • Punishment: Arrested, tried, and executed by hanging on 8 April 1857.
    • Legacy: Regarded as the “Hero of the First War of Indian Independence” and a symbol of resistance.

    Back2Basics: 1857 War of Independence

    • Overview: The First War of Indian Independence or the Great Rebellion of 1857.
    • Sepoy Composition: Indians made up over 87% of the British Indian Army but faced severe discrimination.
    • Root Causes:
      • Military Discontent: Unequal pay, poor promotion prospects, denial of allowances.
      • Religious Insensitivity: Use of animal fat-greased cartridges insulted Hindu and Muslim beliefs.
      • Economic Hardship: Heavy land taxes, decline in traditional crafts, and rising unemployment.
      • Political Grievances: Annexation of Indian states and enforcement of oppressive laws.
    • Outbreak:
      • Barrackpore: Mangal Pandey’s defiance on 29 March 1857 marked the beginning.
      • Meerut: On 10 May 1857, sepoys rebelled after refusing cartridges and were imprisoned.
      • Delhi: Rebels marched to Delhi and declared Bahadur Shah II as Emperor.
    • Spread of Revolt: Uprising expanded to Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bihar, Bareilly, Faizabad, and beyond.
    • Mass Participation: Involved sepoys, peasants, landlords, and regional rulers.

    Suppression and Its Aftermath:

    • Brutal Suppression: Rebellion was crushed by 1859; Delhi was recaptured in September 1857.
    • Administrative Shift: British East India Company was dissolved; India came under direct British Crown rule, initiating the British Raj.
    • Military Reorganization: Indian representation in the army was reduced and reorganized to prevent future revolts.
    • Increased Repression: Racial discrimination and harsh policies intensified post-revolt.

     

    [UPSC 2006] Who was the Governor-general of India during the Sepoy Mutiny?

    Options: (a) Lord Canning* (b) Lord Dalhousie (c) Lord Hardinge (d) Lord Lytton

     

  • [19th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Indian inequality and the World Bank’s claims 

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2015] Though there have been several different estimates of poverty in India, all indicate reduction in poverty levels over time. Do you agree? Critically examine with reference to urban and rural poverty indicators.

    Linkage: The article highlights that the World Bank’s report, “India Poverty and Equity Brief: April 2025,” claims India has “almost eradicated extreme poverty” and “significantly reduced consumption inequality since 2011-12”. This directly supports the premise in the PYQ about a reduction in poverty levels.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The World Bank’s April 2025 report highlights a decline in extreme poverty in India, supported by new HCES datarevealing insights into consumption inequality. The launch of the PMDDKY aims to reform agriculture through district-level planning, despite concerns over falling public investment in agriculture. Emphasis on inclusive participation and localised implementation is crucial for sustainable growth.

    Today’s editorial analyses the World Bank’s report “India Poverty and Equity Brief: April 2025”. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Indian Society) and  GS Paper II (Social Justice) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently, the release of the World Bank’s report “India Poverty and Equity Brief: April 2025”, which made significant claims about the reduction in poverty and inequality in India.

    What are the key findings of the World Bank’s April 2025 report on poverty in India?

    • Extreme Poverty Has Nearly Been Eliminated: India has made substantial progress in poverty reduction over the past decade. Eg: About 27 crore people were lifted out of extreme poverty between 2011 and 2023, based on the International Poverty Line of $2.15/day (2017 PPP).
    • Consumption Inequality Has Declined: The gap between the rich and poor in consumption patterns has reduced significantly.  
    • India Among Least Unequal Countries (by Consumption): In terms of consumption distribution, India now ranks among the top four least unequal countries globally. Eg: Both rural and urban households reported increased and more balanced access to milk, eggs, fruits, and vegetables, showing better consumption equity.

    How has the HCES data helped understand consumption inequality?

    The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022–23 data has provided deep insights into consumption inequality in India.

    • Decline in Consumption Inequality: HCES showed a reduction in the consumption gap between the richest and the poorest households. Eg: The Gini coefficient for consumption dropped to 28.2 in rural areas and 31.9 in urban areas, indicating more equitable spending.
    • Improved Nutritional Access Across Income Groups: Data showed that low-income households are consuming more nutritious food than before. Eg: Compared to 2011–12, rural poor households now consume more milk, eggs, fruits, and vegetables, narrowing the dietary gap.
    • Urban-Rural Gap Has Narrowed: Consumption growth in rural India outpaced urban areas, helping to reduce regional inequality. Eg: The monthly per capita consumption rose by over 164% in rural and 146% in urban households (in nominal terms).
    • Shift Towards Non-Food Expenditure: Rising non-food spending like education, transport, and health among lower-income groups suggests improving quality of life. Eg: In rural areas, non-food items made up 50.3% of total spending, indicating broader access to services.
    • Policy Targeting Becomes Easier: The disaggregated data helps target welfare schemes better at both the state and district level. Eg: States like Odisha and Chhattisgarh, which showed rising consumption among poor households, can now be used as models for nutrition and cash transfer schemes.

    Why is distinguishing between income and consumption inequality important?

    • Households Smooth Consumption Despite Income Fluctuations: People often use savings, credit, or social networks to maintain consumption when incomes fall temporarily. Eg: A daily wage worker in Uttar Pradesh may lose work during the monsoon, but still manages basic consumption (food, rent) by borrowing from local moneylenders or using savings.
    • Public Transfers Reduce Consumption Inequality: Government subsidies and welfare schemes help the poor consume more than their income alone would allow. Eg: A family in Odisha earning low wages may still access subsidised food under the Public Distribution System (PDS) and free school meals, narrowing consumption inequality even if income remains low.
    • Informal Support Influences Consumption: Land, gold, livestock, and informal social support can enhance consumption even when income is unstable. Eg: In Maharashtra, a small farmer with seasonal income can sell stored grain or gold jewellery to fund household expenses during lean months—sustaining consumption better than someone with the same income but no assets.

    What are the steps taken by the government?

    • Expansion of Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT): The government has expanded cash transfer schemes like PM-KISAN, PM-Garib Kalyan Yojana, and Ujjwala 2.0 to ensure income support and reduce consumption inequality. Eg: As of 2024, over 11 crore farmers received ₹6,000 annually under PM-KISAN through DBT.
    • Strengthening Food Security SystemsThrough the National Food Security Act (NFSA) and One Nation One Ration Card, subsidised food grains are provided to nearly 80 crore beneficiaries, helping smoothen consumption shocks. Eg: NFSA covers 75% of rural and 50% of urban population, ensuring minimum nutrition.
    • Investment in Social Infrastructure and Welfare: Increased spending on education, health, rural housing (PMAY-G), and employment (MGNREGA) to reduce long-term structural inequality. Eg: In FY 2024-25, the budget for MGNREGA was over ₹86,000 crore, supporting rural livelihoods and stabilising consumption during crises.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Targeting Through Data-Driven Welfare Delivery: Leverage HCES and SECC data to better identify vulnerable households and customize welfare delivery, especially in nutrition, health, and education. Eg: Use Aadhaar-linked data and digital platforms like PM Gati Shakti to streamline benefit distribution and plug leakages.
    • Promote Employment-Led Growth in Rural and Urban Areas: Focus on labour-intensive sectors like agro-processing, textiles, and construction, while supporting MSMEs and skilling initiatives to boost income equality and domestic consumption. Eg: Scale up schemes like PM Vishwakarma and Skill India Mission to create sustainable livelihoods.

  • Disputes over Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)

    Why in the News?

    The completion of Ethiopia’s Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) has reignited tensions over Nile water rights, with Egypt and Sudan fearing reduced water flows.

    Disputes over Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)

    About Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD):

    • Overview: Gravity dam on the Blue Nile near Ethiopia–Sudan border.
    • Construction Timeline: Under construction since 2011, led by Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation.
    • Capacity: Set to become Africa’s largest hydropower plant with 6.45 GW output.
    • Reservoir Size: Holds 74 billion cubic metres; filling may take 5–15 years.
    • Key Features: 145 m tall dam, 16 turbines, and a supporting saddle dam.
    • Purpose: Aims to power Ethiopia (65% population lacks electricity) and export surplus to neighbouring countries.
    • Disputes Around GERD:
      • Egypt’s Concern: Fears reduced water flow; Relies 90% on Nile; demands a binding filling agreement.
      • Sudan’s Worry: Concerns over flood risks and water regulation.
      • Ethiopia’s Stand: Asserts sovereign rights; began filling without consensus.
      • Stalled Talks: Tripartite negotiations have failed; Egypt warns of possible conflict.

    Back2Basics: Nile River

    • Overview: North-flowing, longest river in Africa at ~6,650 km.
    • Drainage Basin: Covers 11 countries—Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.
    • Main Tributaries:
      • White Nile: Recognized as the headstream, its most remote source is the Kagera River in Burundi, flowing through Rwanda into Lake Victoria. It officially begins at Jinja, Uganda, where it exits Lake Victoria.
      • Blue Nile: Originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and merges with the White Nile at Khartoum, Sudan.  Supplies over 80% of total Nile flow by the time it reaches Egypt.
    • Lifeline Status: Vital for Egypt and Sudan’s drinking water, irrigation, and energy needs.

     

    [UPSC 2008] Ogaden region has been a source of conflict between which countries?

    Options: (a) Morocco and Algeria (b) Nigeria and Cameroon (c) Angola and Zambia (d) Ethiopia and Somalia*

     

  • In news: Reykjanes Peninsula

    Why in the News?

    Recently a volcano erupted in south-west Iceland, continuing a pattern of recurring geological activity on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

    In news: Reykjanes Peninsula

    About the Reykjanes Peninsula:

    • Location: Situated in southwest Iceland along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where tectonic plates diverge.
    • Volcanic Reawakening: Dormant for centuries until 2021; now sees recurring eruptions.
    • Eruption Type: Known for fissure eruptions—lava flows from cracks, not a central crater.
    • Key Sites: Includes Grindavik (evacuated), Blue Lagoon spa, and Svartsengi power plant.
    • Volcanic Importance: Part of Iceland’s 30+ active volcanic zones.

    Key Features:

    • Eruption Style: Produces steady lava flows with minimal ash output.
    • Flight Safety: Air traffic remains unaffected due to lack of stratospheric ash.
    • Evacuation Impact: Grindavik largely abandoned after 2023 lava threat.
    • Long-Term Activity: Eruptions may persist for decades or longer.
    • Iceland Snapshot: Population ~400,000; similar in size to Kentucky.
    • Tourism Appeal: Attracts visitors like other volcanic hotspots—Mexico, Indonesia, Sicily, and New Zealand.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following geological phenomena:

    1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault

    3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks

    Which of the above cause earthquakes?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

     

  • Tipu Sultan and Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799)

    Why in the News?

    The new NCERT Class 8 Social Science textbook omits Tipu Sultan, Haidar Ali, and the Anglo-Mysore Wars from its chapter on India’s colonial era.

    Tipu Sultan and Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-1799)

    Legend of Tipu Sultan and Haidar Ali:

    • Rise of Haidar Ali: Started as a horseman in the Mysore army and became de facto ruler by 1761 through military skill.
    • Military Reforms: Introduced Western training, built arms factories with French help, and strengthened cavalry and artillery.
    • Tipu Sultan: Born in 1751, trained by French officers and well-versed in Islamic law, Persian, Arabic, and science.
    • Administrative Innovations: Introduced a new calendar, land revenue reforms, and coins in gold, silver, and copper with Persian inscriptions.
    • Governance and Industry: Created seven departments, promoted silk industry, and envisioned the future Kannambadi Dam.
    • French Alliance: Maintained strong ties with France, alarming the British amid global Anglo-French rivalry.
    • Technological Advancement: Deployed iron-cased Mysorean rockets, which inspired British Congreve rockets.
    • Moral Governance: Banned liquor, gambling, and prostitution to enforce discipline.
    • Religious Policy: Though devoutly Islamic, he patronized temples and mathas, but faced criticism for intolerance in annexed regions.

    About the Anglo-Mysore Wars:

    First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69)

    • Alliance Against Mysore: British, Marathas, and Nizam formed a coalition against Haidar Ali.
    • Diplomatic Victory: Haidar neutralized the Marathas and secured Nizam’s support.
    • Outcome: Treaty of Madras (1769) restored the status quo and mutual restitution of territories.

    Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84)

    • Trigger: British violation of the Treaty of Madras and occupation of French port Mahe.
    • Coalition Formation: Haidar allied with Marathas and Nizam against the British.
    • Major Battle: Captured Arcot and defeated Col. Baillie; Haidar died in 1782.
    • Conclusion: Tipu continued the fight; Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was the last time an Indian power dictated terms to the British.

    Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92)

    • Cause: Tipu’s attack on Travancore, a British ally.
    • British Response: Cornwallis led a coordinated campaign with Maratha and Nizam support.
    • Result: Tipu ceded half his territory and paid ₹3 crore under the Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).

    Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)

    • British Strategy: Wellesley isolated Tipu diplomatically over his French ties.
    • Final Battle: Tipu was killed defending Seringapatam on May 4, 1799, ending native resistance in South India.

    Aftermath of the Wars:

    • Fall of Resistance: Tipu’s death marked the end of organized native military opposition in the South.
    • British Control: Wodeyars reinstated as puppet rulers under Subsidiary Alliance; key territories annexed by the British.
    • Territorial Division: Nizam received Gooty and Gurramkonda; Marathas declined British land offer.
    • Administrative Changes: Mysore came under direct British rule in 1831 due to alleged misrule; restored to Wodeyars in 1881 by Lord Ripon under a constitutional monarchy.
    • Legacy: Anglo-Mysore Wars showed how native resistance could challenge colonial power through modernization, alliances, and tactical innovation.
    • Rocketry Influence: Tipu’s military rocketry was studied and adapted by the British into European warfare.
    [UPSC 2014] With reference to the Anglo-Mysore Wars, consider the following statements:

    1. In the Third Battle of Panipat, Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated Ibrahim Lodi.

    2. Tipu Sultan was killed in the Third Anglo-Mysore War.

    3. Mir Jafar entered in a conspiracy with the English for the defeat of Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah in the Battle of Plassey.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) None

     

  • Machilipatnam as Ancient Port is set for big Revival

    Why in the News?

    Machilipatnam, once a flourishing ancient port city on India’s east coast, is witnessing a major transformation with the construction of a modern Greenfield port.

    Machilipatnam as Ancient Port is set for big Revival

    About Machilipatnam:

    • Alternate Names: Also known as Masulipatnam, Maisolia, or Manjarika.
    • Geographic Location: Located in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, on the southeastern Coromandel Coast, at the mouth of River Krishna, ~70 km east of Amaravati.
    • Historical Importance:
      • One of the most significant east coast port cities for ~1,700 years.
      • Played a key role in maritime trade across ancient, medieval, and early modern periods.
    • Global Trade Connections:
      • Attracted traders from Rome, Arabia, Persia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
      • Known for exporting high-quality Muslin textiles prized in Roman markets.
      • The term “muslin” likely derives from “Maisolia,” an ancient name of the city.
    • Cultural Contributions:
      • Known for Kalamkari art, a traditional textile art featuring hand-painted or block-printed designs.
    • Dynastic Port Usage:
      • Satavahanas (1st BCE – 2nd CE): Used as a major trade gateway.
      • Vishnukundins (4th–6th CE): Trade wealth supported Buddhist monument construction (e.g., Nagarjunakonda).
      • Qutb Shahis (16th–17th CE): Transformed it into a global hub for diamonds, muslin, and Kalamkari.
      • Nizams of Hyderabad (18th century): Controlled the port until partial cession to the British.
    • Mentions in Ancient Texts:
      • Appears as Maisolia in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
      • Listed as Maisolos in Ptolemy’s Geographia.
    • Colonial Involvement:
      • Dutch built a fort in the 17th century.
      • British East India Company established its first Bay of Bengal factory here in 1611.
      • Between 1686–1759, it changed hands among French, Dutch, and British; seized by British from the French in 1759.
    • Decline of the Port:
      • Anchorage Issue: Unsuitable for large ships, with anchorage 5 miles offshore.
      • Cyclone Damage: A severe cyclone in 1779 killed ~20,000 and destroyed Dutch structures.
      • Trade Shift: Decline due to growing prominence of Madras (Chennai) and Visakhapatnam under British rule.
    • Post-Independence Claim:
      • In 1947, 7th Nizam of Hyderabad attempted to reclaim it for sea access to an independent Hyderabad state.
    • Modern Revival:
      • A Greenfield port at Manginapudi is under construction, expected to be operational by 2026.
      • Aims to restore Machilipatnam’s historical maritime legacy.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as:

    (a) capital cities (b) ports* (c) centres of iron and steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

     

  • Behdeinkhlam Festival celebrated in Meghalaya

    Why in the News?

    The Behdienkhlam Festival of Pnar (Jaintia) community in Meghalaya was recently celebrated.

    Behdeinkhlam Festival celebrated in Meghalaya

    About Behdienkhlam Festival:

    • Cultural Role: Major religious and cultural festival of the Pnar (Jaintia) community in Meghalaya.
    • Location: Four-day festival held in Jowai, West Jaintia Hills.
    • Meaning: Means driving away the plague or evil.
    • Timing: Celebrated in mid-July after sowing season.
    • Purpose: Prayers for a good harvest and community cleansing.
    • Faith: Observed mainly by followers of the Niamtre religion.
    • Women’s Role: Women offer food to ancestors but do not dance in rituals.

    Key Features:

    • Rituals: Dolois perform rites to drive away disease and evil.
    • Symbolic Act: Youth beat rooftops with bamboo sticks to expel evil.
    • Rots: 30–40 ft decorated bamboo structures with social themes.
    • Khnong Ritual: Teams pull a large wooden beam and immerse it in mud.
    • Dad-Lawakor: Traditional football-like game predicting harvest success.
    • Celebrations: Mass dancing at Wah Aitnar pool with drums and pipes.
    [UPSC 2012] Chapchar Kut is a festival celebrated in the state of:

    Options: (a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Assam (c) Mizoram* (d) Sikkim