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GS Paper: GS1

  • [17th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A tectonic shift in thinking to build seismic resilience

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2015] Earthquakes along the plate margins are still a cause of concern. India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects.

    Linkage: The article emphasizes that India’s seismic risk is rooted in the northward drift of the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian Plate, which shaped the Himalayas and makes the region “overdue for a ‘Great Himalayan Earthquake’.  The question specifically mentions “earthquakes along the plate margins” and critically highlights “India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The 4.4 magnitude tremor in Delhi on July 10, 2025, though moderate, exposed the critical fragility of India’s infrastructure, especially in Delhi, where over 80% of buildings violate seismic safety norms. This event is part of a wider pattern of seismic activity across Asia, underlining the urgent need for earthquake preparedness. India, particularly northern and northeastern regions, lies in high-risk seismic zones (IV & V) due to the collision of tectonic plates, making a massive quake imminent. Urbanisation, outdated construction, and poor enforcement of seismic codes like IS 1893:2016 worsen the risk.

    Today’s editorial analyses the vulnerability to earthquakes in India. This topic is important for GS Paper I (Geography) and  GS Paper III (Disaster Management) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    On July 10, 2025, a 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck near Delhi, exposing the fragile state of infrastructure.

    Why is Delhi vulnerable to earthquakes?

    • High Seismic Risk Zone: Delhi lies in Seismic Zone IV, indicating a severe seismic hazard with a peak ground acceleration (PGA) of around 0.24g. Eg: Similar Zone IV cities like Srinagar and Patna have experienced strong tremors in the past.
    • Poor Structural Compliance: Over 80% of buildings in Delhi, especially those constructed before 2000, do not comply with seismic safety codes. Eg: Unregulated high-rise apartments in East Delhi lack ductile detailing or shear walls, making them prone to collapse.
    • Liquefaction-Prone Areas: Areas like East Delhi and Yamuna floodplains are built on soft alluvial soils, which are susceptible to liquefaction during earthquakes. Eg: In the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, structures on soft soil experienced severe tilting and collapse.
    • Rapid Urbanisation Without Planning: Delhi’s urban sprawl and dense population (over 33 million) have led to haphazard construction, often violating zoning and structural norms. Eg: Many illegal colonies like those in outer Delhi lack any seismic design considerations.

    What are the vulnerable areas in India? 

    • Himalayan Region: The Himalayan belt is highly prone to earthquakes due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. Eg: Regions like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and parts of Northeast India fall under Seismic Zone V.
    • Indo-Gangetic Plain: This region experiences significant seismic activity due to the tectonic stress transfer from the Himalayan region. Eg: Parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and West Bengal lie in Seismic Zones III and IV.
    • Peninsular India Fault Zones: Though considered geologically stable, intraplate faults in Peninsular India can still trigger strong earthquakes. Eg: Areas like Latur (Maharashtra), Koyna (Maharashtra), and Bhuj (Gujarat) have witnessed major quakes in the past.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government? 

    • Building Code Reforms: The government enforces Earthquake-Resistant Building Codes to ensure structural safety in seismic zones. Eg: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) revised IS 1893 and IS 4326 to include updated seismic design norms across construction sectors.
    • National Seismic Zoning: India has been zoned into seismic risk areas to guide planning and construction based on earthquake vulnerability. Eg: The country is divided into Zone II to Zone V, with Zone V (like parts of Uttarakhand, Kashmir) being most earthquake-prone.
    • Disaster Management Framework: The government has established a dedicated institutional framework to coordinate disaster preparedness and response. Eg: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issues guidelines for earthquake risk mitigation and conducts regular mock drills and capacity-building programs.

    What are the steps taken at the international level?

    • Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030): The United Nations adopted this global framework to strengthen disaster preparedness, promote resilient infrastructure, and reduce disaster losses. Eg: Countries like Japan and Chile have aligned their national disaster policies with Sendai priorities, emphasizing risk governance and early warning.
    • Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP): Led by the International Lithosphere Program, this initiative provides seismic hazard maps to help countries plan safer infrastructure. Eg: Italy and other European nations use GSHAP data to revise building codes and zoning laws in earthquake-prone zones.
    • Early Warning Systems and Technology Sharing: Countries are collaborating to develop earthquake early warning systems and share real-time seismic data across borders. Eg: The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and Japan’s Earthquake Early Warning System help neighbouring nations prepare faster for seismic events.

    What global lessons can India adopt from other countries? (Way forward)

    • Building Code Enforcement: Strong and regularly updated building codes ensure that infrastructure can withstand seismic shocks, reducing casualties and damage. Eg: After the 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan revised its seismic building codes, which helped limit destruction during the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.
    • Early Warning Systems: Timely alerts enable people to take quick protective actions, such as evacuation or shutting down utilities, before the shaking begins. Eg: In 2017, Mexico City’s SASMEX system gave a 20-second alert before the quake struck, allowing residents to prepare.
    • Retrofitting Incentives: Providing financial support for retrofitting older buildings motivates citizens to strengthen structures against earthquakes. Eg: The Earthquake Brace + Bolt program in California offers funds to homeowners, promoting structural safety in vulnerable areas.

  • In news: Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS)

    Why in the News?

    This newscard highlights the role of Indian assistants in completing the Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS), which began in 1802 to map India’s geography.

    About the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS):

    • Launch and Objective: The GTS was a massive scientific and cartographic initiative launched in 1802 by the British to map India with unprecedented precision using trigonometry and geodesy.
    • Initiator: It was conceptualised by William Lambton, a British army officer, and carried out under the East India Company.
    • Purpose: It aimed to measure Earth’s curvature, create accurate maps, and support colonial administration, scientific research, and military planning.
    • Survey Method: It used triangulation, involving a network of interconnected triangles built from a known baseline to calculate distances and angles over large areas.
    • First Baseline: The initial baseline was measured in 1802 at St. Thomas Mount near Madras (Chennai) and extended over 2,600 km up to the Himalayas.
    • Instruments Used: The survey used massive theodolites (weighing up to half a ton) and measuring chains, requiring large teams for operation and transport.
    • Scientific Outcome: It led to the formulation of the Everest Spheroid, a geodetic reference model still used for mapping in South Asia.
    • Duration and Leadership: Although planned to take 5 years, the project lasted nearly 70 years (until 1871) and was led by successors such as George Everest (after whom Mt. Everest was named), Andrew Scott Waugh, and James Walker.

    How did the GTS led to the Mapping of India?

    • First Accurate Maps: It provided scientific maps that corrected earlier errors, enabling modern geodetic frameworks for administration and infrastructure.
    • Survey Range: It mapped from southern India to the Himalayas, supporting large-scale development and scientific measurement.
    • Great Arc Measurement: It measured the Great Arc (Chennai to Dehradun), a significant geodetic arc that helped calculate Earth’s curvature.
    • Himalayan Heights: Using triangulation data, the survey measured 79 Himalayan peaks, including Mount Everest, K2, and Kangchenjunga.
    • Mount Everest Identification: In 1852, Peak XV was identified as the world’s highest mountain, later named Mount Everest in honour of George Everest.
    • Latitude-Longitude System: It produced precise longitude and latitude coordinates, crucial for navigation, military logistics, and administration.
    • Infrastructure Impact: Survey benchmarks supported railways, roads, canals, and earthquake studies, many of which remain relevant today.

    Contribution of Indians to the GTS:

    • Syed Mir Mohsin Husain: A jeweller from Arcot who repaired critical instruments and was later appointed as an instrument maker in the Surveyor General’s office.
    • Radhanath Sikdar: An Indian mathematician who calculated the height of Mount Everest in 1852, confirming it as the tallest peak globally.
    • Indian Field Workers: Thousands of Indian flagmen, khalasis, and labourers undertook challenging tasks like carrying heavy equipment, setting markers, and working in hazardous environments.
    • Logistical Support: Indian artisans and technicians repaired, calibrated, and adapted instruments, making the project feasible under Indian conditions.
    • Role of Pundits: Trained Indian “pundits” conducted secret surveys in Tibet and politically sensitive regions, where British officers were restricted.
    [UPSC 2018] Among the following cities, which one lies on a longitude closest to that of Delhi?

    Options: (a) Bengaluru* (b) Hyderabad (c) Nagpur (d) Pune

     

  • Jarawa Tribe of Andaman Islands

    Why in the News?

    Ahead of the 16th Census of India, experts have stated that counting the six main indigenous tribes of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, including the Jarawa, is feasible.

    Jarawa Tribe of Andaman Islands

    About Jarawa Tribe:

    • Location: They live in the Middle and South Andaman Islands of India.
    • Official Status: They are classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) by the GoI.
    • Population Growth: Their population has risen from 260 (1998) to around 647 (2025) due to better healthcare and low external interference.
    • First Contact: Voluntary contact with outsiders began in 1997, allowing limited medical aid, schooling, and trade.
    • Key Features:
      • Lifestyle: They are hunter-gatherers and fisherfolk, moving in nomadic groups of 40–50 individuals.
      • Ancestry: Believed to be descendants of the extinct Jangil tribe and among the earliest human migrants from Africa.
      • Health Profile: They maintain strong physical health with low incidence of lifestyle diseases like diabetes and hypertension.
      • Lifespan: Natural childbirth is common, and the average lifespan now exceeds 50 years.

    Note:

    The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to 5 PVTGs, which are among the most isolated and distinct indigenous communities in India. They are- Great Andamanese, Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.

     

    Back2Basics: Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

    • Overview:  They are a subgroup within Scheduled Tribes considered most backward and vulnerable.
    • Habitat: They generally inhabit remote localities having poor infrastructure and administrative support.
    • Distribution: There are 75 such groups identified and categorized PVTGs.
    • Origin of the concept:
      • The Dhebar Commission (1960-1961) stated that within Scheduled Tribes there existed an inequality in the rate of development.
      • During the 4th Five Year Plan (1969-74) a sub-category was created within Scheduled Tribes to identify groups that were considered to be at a lower level of development.
      • This sub-category was named “Primitive tribal group”.
      • In 2006 the government of India proposed to rename PVTGs.
    • Features of PVTGs: Groups that satisfied any one of the criteria are considered PVTGs:
      1. Pre-agricultural system of existence
      2. The practice of hunting and gathering
      3. Zero or negative population growth
      4. Extremely low level of literacy in comparison with other tribal groups.

     

    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:

    1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.

    2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.

    3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.

    4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4* (d) 1, 3 and 4

     

  • Literature in News: Thirukkural

    Why in the News?

    Tamil Nadu CM stressed the need to declare the Thirukkural as a national book and to set up a major organisation in Delhi to promote Thiruvalluvar’s ideas.

    Literature in News: Thirukkural

    About Thirukkural:

    • Overview: Thirukkural is a classical Tamil literary work consisting of 1,330 couplets (kurals), each containing seven words.
    • Form and Message: Composed in the Kural Venba poetic form, it is renowned for its universal values, secular ethics, and moral guidance that transcend time, religion, and culture.
    • Authored by: The text is traditionally attributed to Thiruvalluvar, also known simply as Valluvar.
    • How old is it: Scholars date the text between 300 BCE and 500 CE, though its exact period remains debated.
    • Components: The Thirukkural is divided into 3 major sections:
      1. Aram (Virtue / Dharma): Deals with personal morality, non-violence, and ethical conduct—emphasizing values such as truth, charity, self-control, and compassion.
      2. Porul (Wealth / Artha): Focuses on social, political, and economic life, including governance, justice, taxation, warfare, diplomacy, and administration.
      3. Inbam (Love / Kama): Explores human emotions, love, and personal relationships, especially themes of romance, domestic life, and emotional well-being.

    Key Features of Thirukkural:

    • Ethical Emphasis: Promotes timeless values like non-violence (ahimsa), truth, self-restraint, gratitude, and hospitality.
    • Societal Themes: Highlights issues such as education, friendship, agriculture, social justice, and temperance.
    • Cultural Reverence: Referred to by honorifics such as “Tamil Veda” and “Divine Book”, symbolizing its moral and spiritual stature.
    • Literary Qualities: Celebrated for its brevity, clarity, and philosophical depth, making it accessible and universally admired.

    Back2Basics: Sangam Literature

    • Overview: It refers to the ancient body of Tamil texts composed during the Sangam period, traditionally dated from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE.
    • Meaning: The word Sangam means “assembly” or “academy”, referring to gatherings of Tamil poets under the patronage of Pandya kings.
    • Historical Context: According to Tamil tradition, there were three Sangams:
      1. First Sangam (Madurai): No known literary works have survived.
      2. Second Sangam (Kapadapuram): Only Tolkappiyam (grammar and poetics) survives.
      3. Third Sangam (Madurai): Source of most surviving Sangam literature.
    • Nature and Content:
      • Literary Form: Written in classical Tamil poetry, the texts reflect secular themes like love, war, charity, governance, agriculture, and trade.
      • Societal Insight: Offers a detailed glimpse into the social, political, and economic life of ancient Tamil society.
    • Key Texts:
      • Tolkappiyam: The earliest Tamil grammar and work on poetic theory.
      • Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies): Collections of short poems.
      • Pattupattu (Ten Idylls): Longer narrative poems.
      • Padinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works): Didactic works focused on ethics and morality.
      • Three Epics: Silappatikaram, Manimekalai, Sivaga Sindamani/. These were compiled later but are deeply influenced by Sangam themes.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following explains the practice of Vattakirutal’ as mentioned in Sangam poems?

    Options: (a) Kings employing women bodyguards

    (b) Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters

    (c) Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals

    (d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death*

     

  • [12th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: View India’s Gender Gap Report ranking as a warning

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2023] Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India?

    Linkage: The report says that India’s low scores in areas like women’s jobs and health show a deep problem that is slowing down the country’s progress. Even though the economy is growing, women are still left behind in key areas. That’s why the report’s low ranking is a strong warning.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025 has brought renewed attention to India’s poor performance in gender equality, ranking it 131 out of 148 countries. Despite being a global economic and digital power, the report highlights serious structural deficits in India, especially in women’s health, economic participation, and decision-making roles.

    Today’s editorial analyses the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025 for India. This topic is important for  GS Paper II (Social Justice) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently, India was ranked very low in the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2025, showing that there are serious and long-standing inequalities between men and women, especially in jobs and economic roles.

    Why is India’s low gender gap ranking seen as a structural failure?

    • Low Global Ranking in Gender Gap: According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2025, India ranks 131 out of 148 countries, reflecting persistent inequality in key areas such as economic participation and health. This ranking indicates a structural issue beyond isolated policy failures.
    • Poor Female Labour Force Participation: India ranks 143rd in economic participation and opportunity, with women earning less than one-third of what men do. Female labour force participation remains below 25%, revealing systemic barriers to employment despite rising educational levels.

     

    What health barriers limit women’s economic participation in India?

    • High Anaemia Prevalence: Nearly 57% of women aged 15–49 suffer from anaemia (NFHS-5), which weakens physical capacity, affects cognitive ability, and reduces safe maternal outcomes, ultimately restricting their ability to work or study.
    • Gendered Gaps in Healthcare Access: Women, especially in rural and low-income groups, face inadequate access to reproductive health, preventive care, and nutrition, leading to poor health outcomes and lower life expectancy than men.
    • Neglect of Women’s Health in Policy: Public health systems often fail to prioritise women’s specific needs, with underfunded primary care, weak maternal services, and poor sanitation, resulting in chronic health issues that hinder long-term workforce participation.

    How does unpaid care work hinder gender equality and growth?

    • Limits Women’s Workforce Participation: Indian women perform nearly seven times more unpaid domestic work than men (Time Use Survey), leaving little time for formal employment or skill development.
      For instance, many women drop out of jobs after childbirth due to lack of childcare support.
    • Undervalued in National Economy: Despite its economic value, unpaid care work is invisible in GDP calculations and often excluded from policy priorities. Countries like Uruguay have tried to measure and integrate care work into development plans to promote inclusive growth.
    • Worsens Gender Inequality in Decision-Making: The burden of care responsibilities keeps women out of leadership roles and policy spaces, reinforcing their marginalisation in public and private institutions. Low representation of women in budget committees leads to underfunding of women-centric welfare schemes.
    Note: The Time Use Survey, conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) in India (latest available: 2019), provides valuable data on how individuals allocate time to various activities over a 24-hour period.

     

    Which global models can India adopt for care economy reforms?

    • Uruguay’s Approach: The National Integrated Care System ensures universal access to services like childcare, eldercare, and disability assistance, aiming to reduce the unpaid care burden and promote professionalisation of care work.
    • South Korea’s Model: Through expansive public investment in care services, including care vouchers and subsidised facilities, South Korea has enhanced female workforce participation and addressed the care gap in ageing and young populations.
    • Nordic Countries’ Example: Nations like Sweden and Norway offer state-supported childcare, generous parental leave, and policies that promote shared caregiving roles, fostering strong welfare systems and improving gender equity.

    What are the demographic risks of excluding women from the workforce?

    • Rising Dependency Ratio: When women are excluded, fewer people contribute economically while more depend on them, especially as India’s population ages. Eg: By 2050, nearly 20% of Indians will be senior citizens, increasing the burden on a shrinking working population.
    • Shrinking Labour Force: Low female participation limits the potential of India’s large youth base, reducing the nation’s demographic dividend. Eg: India’s female labour force participation was just 24% in 2023, compared to over 60% in many developing nations.
    • Stagnant Economic Growth: Without women’s inclusion, GDP growth slows, and the country may miss massive income gains. Eg: McKinsey Global Institute estimated India could add $770 billion to its GDP by 2025 by closing gender gaps.
    What are the demographic risks of excluding women from the workforce?

    • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve the child sex ratio, ensure education for girls, and raise awareness against gender discrimination.
    • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): This maternity benefit scheme provides financial support to pregnant and lactating women for their first childbirth, promoting nutrition and health.
    • Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK): MSKs offer support services at the grassroots level, including skill training, employment guidance, legal aid, and digital literacy to empower rural women.

     

    Way forward: 

    • Invest in Women-Centric Infrastructure: Enhance public spending on healthcare, childcare, and eldercare services, especially at the primary level, to support women’s well-being and free up time for economic participation.
    • Institutionalize Gender-Responsive Policies: Implement gender budgeting, time-use surveys, and inclusive labour reforms to recognize unpaid care work and promote women’s entry into the formal workforce.

  • ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’ included in the UNESCO World Heritage List

    Why in the News?

    The ‘Maratha Military Landscapes’ of India have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List under the cultural category during the 47th session of the World Heritage Committee held in Paris.

    About Maratha Military Landscapes:

    • Overview: A network of 12 forts showcasing the Maratha Empire’s military architecture and strategic fortification from the 17th to 19th centuries.
    • Time Period: Developed between 1670 CE (Shivaji’s era) and 1818 CE (end of Peshwa rule).
    • Geographical Spread: 11 forts in Maharashtra and 1 in Tamil Nadu (Gingee Fort), covering hill, coastal, forest, plateau, and island terrains.
    • Key Forts: Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Khanderi, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg (Maharashtra); Gingee (Tamil Nadu).
    • Types:
      • Hill forts: Rajgad, Raigad
      • Hill-forest: Shivneri
      • Coastal: Suvarnadurg, Vijaydurg
      • Island: Khanderi, Sindhudurg
    • Protection:
      • 8 forts by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
      • 4 forts by Maharashtra’s Directorate of Archaeology & Museums
    • Ideology: Reflects Shivaji’s military decentralization, terrain-based defense, and self-sustaining fort systems.
    • Tagged under cultural criteria:
      • (iii) Exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition
      • (iv) Outstanding example of military architecture
      • (vi) Association with historic events and traditions

    What are UNESCO World Heritage Sites?

    • A WHS is a landmark or area recognized for its cultural, historical, natural, or scientific value to humanity.
    • It is governed by the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972).
      • India formally signed the Convention on November 14, 1977.
    • Sites are selected by the World Heritage Committee, comprising 21 elected state parties.
    • Categories include:
      • Cultural (e.g., forts, temples, cities)
      • Natural (e.g., forests, parks, biodiversity sites)
      • Mixed (having both cultural and natural value)
    • Selection is based on 10 criteria (6 cultural + 4 natural); at least one must be met.
    • Once inscribed, sites are eligible for global recognition, protection, and funding.

     

    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

    1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • [11th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Aiding India’s progress with choice, control and capital

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2019] Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss

    Linkage: The PYQ’s focus on “Empowering women” directly reflects this crucial aspect of granting individuals, particularly young women, the choice and control over their bodies and lives. The article further elaborates that true empowerment means equipping adolescents, especially girls, with the skills, education, and opportunities.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The World Population Day 2025 has reignited global and national discussions on youth empowerment, reproductive rights, and falling fertility rates. With the theme “Empowering young people to create the families they want in a fair and hopeful world”, the UN highlights the need for informed reproductive choices and access to health, education, and economic opportunities, especially for India’s large youth population. The day also coincides with the release of the UNFPA’s State of World Population Report 2025, which warns that the real fertility crisis lies not in declining birth rates, but in the unmet reproductive goals due to financial, social, and infrastructural constraints. 

    Today’s editorial analyses the youth empowerment, reproductive rights, and falling fertility rates. This topic is important for  GS Paper I (Indian Society) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently, World Population Day 2025 has brought renewed attention to global and national debates on empowering youth, ensuring reproductive rights, and addressing the challenges of declining fertility rates.

    Why is youth empowerment essential for harnessing India’s demographic dividend?

    • India’s youth population is a major economic asset: With over 371 million people aged 15–29, India has the world’s largest youth population. If equipped with quality education, skills, health, and family planning services, this segment can become a powerful engine of economic growth and innovation.
    • Youth empowerment boosts national productivity and employment: Empowered youth can significantly reduce unemployment and enhance social outcomes. According to the World Bank and NITI Aayog, unlocking youth potential could increase India’s GDP by up to $1 trillion by 2030.
    • Empowerment ensures participation in nation-building: By promoting reproductive autonomy, gender equality, and economic independence, youth, especially young women, can participate in decision-making and shape their futures, contributing meaningfully to sustainable development.

    What barriers hinder reproductive autonomy and fertility choices in India?

    • Limited access to family planning services and information: A significant share of the population lacks access to modern contraceptives, comprehensive sexual and reproductive health education, and counselling. Eg: According to the UNFPA State of World Population Report 2025, 36% of Indian adults faced unintended pregnancies, while 30% had unmet reproductive goals, reflecting systemic gaps in reproductive healthcare access.
    • Socio-cultural norms and gender inequality: Patriarchal attitudes, early marriages, and taboos around women’s reproductive rights often prevent young women from making independent fertility decisions. Eg: Though child marriage rates have declined, they remain high at 23.3% (NFHS-5, 2019–21), indicating how cultural practices continue to limit women’s reproductive autonomy.
    • Economic insecurity and structural barriers: Financial constraints, lack of housing, quality childcare, and secure employment inhibit couples from achieving their desired family size. Eg: A UNFPA survey found that 38% of Indian respondents cited financial limitations and 22% housing constraintsas major reasons for not fulfilling fertility aspirations.

    How have schemes tackled child marriage and women’s empowerment?

    • Promoting girls’ education to delay early marriages: Schemes like Project Udaan in Rajasthan focused on keeping girls in secondary school using government scholarships, reducing the incidence of child marriage and teenage pregnancy.
    • Enhancing reproductive health awareness and services: Programmes such as Udaan and Advika improved access to modern contraceptives and sexual and reproductive health education, thereby strengthening reproductive agency among young women.
    • Empowering adolescents through life skills and leadership training: The Advika programme in Odisha helped prevent child marriage by providing life-skills training, leadership development, and child protection awareness across thousands of villages.
    • Fostering economic independence and employment: Project Manzil, implemented in Rajasthan, aligned skill training with young women’s aspirations and connected them to gender-sensitive workplaces, empowering over 16,000 women with employment and negotiation power.
    • Engaging communities to shift social norms: Behaviour change strategies under projects like Manzil worked to challenge harmful gender norms and involved families and communities, leading to reduced resistance against girls’ education and work.

    Why should population discourse focus on rights and gender equity over fertility panic?

    • Respecting reproductive autonomy prevents coercion: Framing falling fertility as a “crisis” can lead to target-driven pronatalist policies that pressure women to reproduce, threatening their right to bodily autonomy. Eg: In countries like Hungary and Iran, such policies have led to restrictions on abortion and contraception, undermining women’s freedom.
    • Empowering women yields long-term social gains: Promoting gender equality, economic participation, and education for women improves both fertility decisions and broader development outcomes. Eg: Nordic countries like Sweden focus on workplace equality and parental leave, ensuring women can choose when and whether to have children.
    • Inclusive policy design avoids harmful stereotyping: Fertility panic often ignores the needs of those who want children but face barriers, while blaming those who are voluntarily childfree. Eg: The UNFPA’s 2025 report shows that 40% of respondents globally had to forgo childbearing due to financial and structural obstacles, not personal choice.

    What can India learn from global responses to fertility decline?

    • Focus on enabling choices, not coercion: Countries like South Korea have spent billions on pronatalist incentives, but results remained limited until recent societal support systems (e.g., childcare, housing, and financial aid) improved. India must prioritize voluntary reproductive agency over target-driven incentives.
    • Promote gender equity in workforce and caregiving: Fertility policies that reinforce traditional gender roles have backfired. Instead of pressuring women to bear more children, countries like Sweden have boosted fertility by promoting gender-equal parenting, paternal leave, and women’s employment, which India can emulate.

    Way forward: 

    • Invest in rights-based reproductive health systems: Ensure universal access to quality contraceptives, safe abortion, maternal care, and infertility services, while safeguarding individuals’ reproductive autonomy through accurate health education and gender-sensitive policies.
    • Shift from fertility targets to gender equity: Focus on empowering women through education, economic independence, and childcare support, instead of promoting pronatalist incentives that risk reinforcing patriarchal norms and limiting personal choices.

  • [pib] Fossils reveal Kashmir Valley’s Climatic Past

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP), Lucknow, have found strong evidence that the Kashmir Valley, now cool and temperate, was once a warm, humid subtropical region.

    About the Study on Fossils:

    • Site of Fossil Discovery: The fossils were recovered from the Karewa sediments of the Kashmir Valley, known for preserving ancient plant remains.
    • Analysis: Researchers used CLAMP (Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program) to analyze fossil leaf shape, size, and margins to estimate past temperature and rainfall patterns.
    • Coexistence Approach: It was also used, comparing fossil plants with their modern relatives to reconstruct the region’s ancient climate.

    Key Findings:

    • Past Climate Type: The Kashmir Valley once had a warm, humid subtropical climate, very different from the cool, Mediterranean-type climate it experiences today.
    • Vegetation Evidence: Fossilized leaves showed diverse subtropical plant types no longer found in the region’s current vegetation.
    • Role of Tectonic Uplift: The tectonic uplift of the Pir Panjal Range was identified as a key factor that blocked the Indian summer monsoon from entering the valley.
    • Climatic Transition: This led to gradual drying of the region and a shift from subtropical forests to temperate ecosystems.
    • Impact of Mountain-Building: The study shows that mountain-building (tectonic uplift) can directly affect climate patterns by altering monsoon routes.
    • Relevance to Climate Change: The findings provide insight into natural climate shifts over millions of years, helping contextualize modern climate change.
    • Ecological Vulnerability: It also highlights the fragility of mountain ecosystems like the Himalayas, which are vulnerable to both natural and human-induced environmental changes.

    Back2Basics:

    • Karewa Sediments: They are plateau-like terraces in the Kashmir Valley, made up of lacustrine (lake) and fluvio-glacial deposits; They are known to preserve ancient fossils, especially of plants.
    • Subtropical Climate: A warm and humid climate with moderate to high rainfall, supporting dense vegetation. Ex: Climate of northeastern India.
    • Mediterranean-Type Climate: Characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers; Ex: Current climate of parts of the Kashmir Valley.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Which of the following are the evidence of the phenomenon of continental drift?

    I. The belt of ancient rocks from Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa. II. The gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side. III. The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.

    Options: (a) I and III only (b) I and II only (c) I, II and III * (d) II and III only

     

  • [pib] Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas

    Why in the News?

    The International Buddhist Confederation (IBC) recently celebrated Ashadha Purnima, also known as Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas at Mulagandha Kuti Vihara, Sarnath.

    About Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas:

    • First Sermon: It marks the day when Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment.
    • Date of Observance: The day is observed annually on the full moon of Ashadha (Ashadha Purnima), usually in July.
    • Name and Location: The sermon, called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered at Deer Park (Isipatana), Sarnath, near Varanasi.
    • Core Teachings Introduced: It laid the foundational teachings of Buddhism by introducing the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
    • Formation of Sangha: His five former ascetic companions—Kaundinya, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, and Assaji—became the first monks of the Buddhist Sangha.
    • Symbolic Representation: The Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) symbolizes this “turning of the wheel of law” and spread of the Buddha’s teachings.
    • Significance:
      • Monastic Practice: It marks the beginning of the Varsha Vassa, a three-month monastic retreat during the rainy season.
      • Religious Importance: It is the second most important Buddhist festival after Buddha Purnima.

    Modern Day Significance:

    • Ambedkarite Movement: In India, it is also significant for commemorating Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism with his followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur (14 October 1956).
    • Social Commitment: On this day, millions reaffirm their commitment to Buddhist values and the 22 vows taken to renounce caste-based discrimination.
    • Global Observance: The day is celebrated internationally under various names—Esala Poya (Sri Lanka), Asanha Bucha (Thailand), and Asadha Purnima (India).

    Tap to read more about philosophical tenets of Buddhism.

    Back2Basics: Buddhist Councils

    Council Date & Venue Patron & President Objective Key Outcomes
    1st Buddhist Council 483 BCE, Rajagriha (Bihar) Ajatashatru (Haryanka dynasty), Presided by Mahakasyapa To preserve the Buddha’s teachings after his Mahaparinirvana – Vinaya Pitaka compiled by Upali (rules for monks)
    – Sutta Pitaka compiled by Ananda (discourses of Buddha)
    2nd Buddhist Council 383 BCE, Vaishali (Bihar) Kalasoka (Shishunaga dynasty), Presided by Sabakami To resolve disputes over lax discipline and the ‘Ten Points’ followed by Vaishali monks – Split into Sthaviravadins (orthodox) and Mahasamghikas (liberal)
    – Reaffirmation of stricter Vinaya rules
    3rd Buddhist Council 247 BCE, Pataliputra (Patna) Ashoka (Maurya dynasty), Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa To eliminate heretical monks and consolidate Buddhist doctrine – Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka
    – Composition of Kathavattu (philosophical debates)
    – Launch of Buddhist missions to 9 countries
    4th Buddhist Council 72 CE, Kashmir Kanishka (Kushan dynasty), Presided by Vasumitra (with Asvaghosha) To formalize doctrines and address doctrinal splits – Formal split into Hinayana and Mahayana schools
    – Compilation of Vibhasha Sastras (commentaries)
    5th Buddhist Council 1871 CE, Mandalay (Burma) Burmese Monarchy To preserve Buddhist texts – 729 stone slabs inscribed with the Pali Canon
    – Considered a Burmese affair; not internationally recognized
    6th Buddhist Council 1954 CE, Yangon (Burma) Burmese Govt & International Sangha To commemorate 2500 years of Buddhism and preserve Theravada canon – Global recitation and review of entire Pali Canon
    – Participation from monks across Buddhist countries

     

    [UPSC 2008] The concept of Eight-fold path forms the theme of-

    Options: (a) Dipavamsa (b) Divyavadana (c) Mahaparinibban Sutta (d) Dharma Chakara Pravartana Sutta*

     

  • 125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.

    125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

    About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):

    • Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
    • Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
    • Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
    • Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
    • Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.

    His Contributions:

    • Role in Pre-Independence Politics:
      • He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
      • He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
      • He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.
    • Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:
      • He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
      • His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.
    • Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:
      • After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
      • In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
      • He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
    • Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):
      • In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
      • The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.
    • Opposition to Article 370:
      • Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
      • He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
      • He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”
    • Legacy:
      • Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
      • He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:

    Party: Its Leader

    1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four