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GS Paper: GS1

  • 100 Years of the Art Deco Style in Madras

    Why in the News?

    The Art Deco style, first showcased at the Paris Exposition on April 29, 1925, took a decade to arrive in Madras. It spread to India via Bombay, where the country’s first Art Deco structure — the Syndicate Bank building — was completed in 1932.

    About Art Deco Style of Architecture:

    • Art Deco Style is a design style that emerged in the 1920s and 30s, characterized by sleek, geometric shapes, luxurious materials, and a focus on manufactured goods.
    • It signified a break from older styles like Neo-classical, Indo-Saracenic, and Bombay Gothic.
    • The style was embraced by Indian banks, insurance companies, cinemas, studios, and business houses to symbolize modernity and cultural identity.
    • In Madras, Art Deco became visible in cinema theatres like Casino (1941), preview halls of Gemini, AVM, and Vijaya-Vauhini studios, commercial buildings like Dare House (1938), hotels such as Oceanic and Dasaprakash, and residential areas including T. Nagar, Mylapore, Alwarpet, and Adyar.
    • Art Deco influenced furniture design, silverware, and even fonts in print.
    • By the 1950s, it was gradually replaced by Modernist/Brutalist styles, aligned with Socialist ideology.

    Contributions of Laxman Mahadeo Chitale:

    • Chitale (1892–1960) was a prominent architect who introduced Art Deco to Madras.
    • Recognized for his drawing skills by Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III of Baroda.
    • He trained under H.V. Lanchester, a British architect associated with New Delhi‘s early planning.
    • He worked on the Umaid Bhavan Palace in Jodhpur, a grand Art Deco residence.
    • After returning from England, Chitale settled in Madras and joined the PWD.
    • In 1932, he started his independent practice, marking the beginning of Art Deco architecture in the city.
    • His major works included the Oriental Insurance Building on Armenian Street, the National Insurance Building (1938) on China Bazaar Road, and the Andhra Insurance Building (1939).
    • His architectural style often included corner entrances and street-facing facades, inspired by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following was the first fort constructed by the British in India?

    Options: (a) Fort William (b) Fort St. George* (c) Fort St. David (d) Fort St. Angelo

     

  • Palaeofires from Permian and Late Silurian in the Godavari Basin

    Why in the News?

    Recent research has uncovered evidence of ancient wildfires (palaeofires) in the Godavari Basin, shedding light on Earth’s geological and climatic history from over 250 million years ago.

    What are Palaeofires?

    • Palaeofires refer to ancient wildfires that occurred in the Earth’s past, influencing the vegetation, climate, and even the formation of coal.
    • These fires, spanning from the Late Silurian (419.2 to 443.8 million years ago) to the Quaternary (2.58 million years ago), left their mark across various landscapes.

    Ancient Palaeofires in the Godavari Basin:

    • Palaeofires, traced back to the Permian period, provide evidence of how fires influenced prehistoric landscapes.
    • Advanced techniques like Raman Spectroscopy and FTIR Spectroscopy were used to differentiate between in situ (on-site) and ex situ (transported) charcoal.
    • The research also highlighted how sea level changes impacted charcoal deposition, with well-preserved fire signatures during regressive phases and more oxidized charcoal during transgressive phases.
    • These findings contribute to understanding carbon storage in the Earth’s crust and provide insights into past climate dynamics and fire behavior.

    Role of Palaeofires in Earth’s Past:

    • Palaeofires were crucial in shaping Earth’s climate, vegetation, and contributing to coal formation across various geological periods.
    • During the Permian period, palaeofires were widespread in Gondwana, affecting plant life and coal deposits.
    • Fossil charcoal found in coal-bearing formations like the Raniganj Coalfield suggested a connection between seasonal droughts and wildfires.
    • These wildfires influenced vegetation patterns and led to the accumulation of carbon-rich deposits.
    • High atmospheric oxygen levels likely intensified these wildfires, significantly affecting both climate and ecosystem changes.
    • Understanding palaeofires helps in grasping long-term carbon sequestration processes.
    [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is:

    Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years* (d) 670 million years

     

  • Changing patterns of Western Disturbances

    Why in the News?

    Heavy rainfall and strong winds disrupted life in Delhi due to a fresh splash of Western Disturbances over North India.

    Changing patterns of Western Disturbances

    What are Western Disturbances?

    • Western Disturbances are extra-tropical weather systems that originate near the Mediterranean region.
    • They carry moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Arabian Sea.
    • These disturbances are embedded within the subtropical westerly jet stream, a fast-moving air current in the upper atmosphere.
    • They bring rain, snow, and fog, especially from December to March, as they encounter the Himalayas, causing rainfall in the plains and snowfall at higher altitudes.
    • They are responsible for most of the winter and pre-monsoon rainfall in Northwest India and are critical for rabi crops like wheat.

    Recent Changes in its Pattern:

    • Recent observations show an increase in frequency, particularly from late January onwards, with disturbances now occurring outside the winter season.
    • These disturbances have been observed even in May, June, and July, where they were once rare.
    • The geographic spread of these disturbances is widening, affecting larger parts of North and Northwest India.
    • Reasons behind:
      • The strengthening of the subtropical westerly jet stream, likely influenced by rising global temperatures, is a key factor.
      • The delayed retreat of the jet stream is affecting the timing of the summer monsoon, leading to overlapping weather patterns.
      • The warming of the Arabian Sea (by 1.2°C to 1.4°C over recent decades) is increasing moisture, intensifying rainfall.
    [UPSC 2015] Consider the following statements:

    1. The winds which blow between 30° N and 60° S latitudes throughout the year are known as westerlies. 2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in North-Western region of India are part of westerlies.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Satavahana Inscriptions found in Telangana

    Why in the News?

    A recent survey by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered eleven inscriptions in Telangana’s Gundaram Reserve Forest, offering key insights into the region’s ancient history, particularly during the Satavahana period.

    Key Findings about the Inscriptions:

    • One inscription mentions a person from the Haritiputra lineage, indicating a connection between the Satavahanas and Chutu dynasty.
    • The site includes religious symbols such as a trident and damaru, marking the first known religious iconography in early inscriptions of South India.
    • The inscriptions reinforce findings from Mukkutraopet and Kotilingala, identifying Telangana as part of the Asmaka Mahajanapada.

    Satavahana Inscriptions found in Telangana

    About the Satavahana Dynasty: 

    • The Satavahana dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire around 60 BCE, ruling over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
    • Simuka, the founding king, reigned from 60 BC to 37 BC and was succeeded by his brother Kanha.
    • Notable Rulers:
      • Satakarni I (70–60 BC) conquered western Malwa from the Shungas.
      • Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD) expanded the empire and patronized Brahmanism and Buddhism.
      • Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130–154 AD) extended his reign to the mouth of the Krishna River.
      • Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 AD) was the last great ruler, expanding the empire to Kokan and Malwa.
    • Art and Architecture: The Amaravati School of Art flourished during this period, with marble sculptures depicting Buddhist narratives. The Satavahanas promoted rock-cut architecture, including Chaityas and Viharas (e.g., Karle Caves, Ajanta Caves).
    • Economic and Administrative Contributions: The Satavahanas fostered trade with the Romans, promoted agriculture, and implemented a mixed revenue system. They also introduced tax-free villages for Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
    • Religious and Social Structure: The Satavahanas promoted Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices and supported Buddhism. The Varna system governed social structure.
    • Decline of the Satavahana Dynasty: The empire weakened due to weak rulers after Yajna Sri Satakarni and was eventually fragmented by feudatories and invasions from the Shakas.
    • Military Organization: The Satavahanas maintained a large military with 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga. 2. The last Sunga king, Devabhuti was assassinated by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne. 3. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.

    Which of these statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • India’s shame — the trap of bonded labour 

    Why in the News?

    On May 1, as people around the world celebrate Labour Day to respect workers and their rights, the lives of millions of bonded labourers in India show a sad and harsh reality.

    What are the key factors contributing to bonded labour in India?

    • Economic Vulnerability: Poor financial conditions force individuals to take loans or advances from employers or agents, trapping them in bonded labour. Eg: A family in Andhra Pradesh takes an advance of ₹2,000 to work at a brick kiln, leading them into a cycle of forced labour.
    • Social Discrimination and Exclusion: Marginalized communities, including lower-caste and ethnic minorities, are more likely to be exploited and trapped in bonded labour due to societal inequalities. Eg: A tribal family from Madhya Pradesh faces exploitation in a sugarcane farm in Karnataka, where they are denied fair wages and basic rights.
    • Lack of Education and Awareness: Illiteracy and lack of access to information prevent workers from understanding their rights, making them vulnerable to exploitation. Eg: Migrant workers in India often unknowingly agree to exploitative terms, not realizing they have legal protections, as seen with many labourers working in informal sectors without contracts.

    Why has the government’s target of eradicating bonded labour by 2030 been deemed overly optimistic?

    • Low Rescue and Rehabilitation Rates: Despite a target of freeing 1.84 crore bonded labourers, only 12,760 were rescued between 2016 and 2021. Eg: To meet the 2030 goal, around 11 lakh people must be rescued every year since 2021, but actual rescues remain far below this mark.
    • Lack of Effective Implementation: Government plans and policies exist on paper, but enforcement at the ground level is weak due to administrative apathy and corruption. Eg: Mukesh Adivasi was trafficked and brutalised despite bonded labour being abolished in 1975, showing poor implementation.
    • Underestimation of the Scale and Complexity: The issue of bonded and forced labour is deeply rooted in economic, social, and cultural structures, making it hard to resolve with short-term policies. Eg: Millions of unorganised migrant workers face bonded-like conditions across industries, beyond the government’s current rescue capacity.

    How does the lack of unionisation among unorganised workers affect their conditions and bargaining power?

    • No Collective Bargaining Power: Without unions, unorganised workers cannot negotiate better wages, safety standards, or working hours. Eg: Migrant workers like Mukesh were forced to work 14–16 hours daily without fair compensation or the right to protest.
    • Increased Vulnerability to Exploitation: The absence of union support leaves workers exposed to abuse, wage theft, and arbitrary dismissal. Eg: Thenmozhi’s family faced verbal abuse, beatings, and confinement in a brick kiln with no platform to seek redress.
    • Lack of Legal Awareness and Representation: Unorganised workers often remain unaware of their rights and have no representation to access justice or government schemes. Eg: Many bonded labourers accept exploitative terms due to illiteracy and isolation, with no union to guide or support them.

    What was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contribution to workers’ rights?

    • Advocated for Legal Recognition of Trade Unions and Collective Bargaining: Dr. Ambedkar strongly supported the formation of trade unions and the workers’ right to strike, believing these were essential for industrial democracy. Eg: As Labour Member in the Viceroy’s Executive Council (1942–46), he introduced laws ensuring trade union recognition and promoted fair negotiations between workers and employers.
    • Pioneered Labour Welfare Legislation: He played a key role in framing foundational labour laws related to working hours, minimum wages, and social security. Eg: The Indian Factories Act, 1948, limiting work hours and ensuring basic worker protections, reflected Ambedkar’s vision for humane working conditions.

    How have recent Labour Codes undermined his legacy?

    • Weakened Collective Bargaining Rights: The Industrial Relations Code, 2020, imposes stricter conditions for strikes and allows employers to hire contract workers more freely, diluting workers’ ability to unionise and negotiate. Eg: A strike now requires a 60-day notice in all sectors, undermining spontaneous worker movements.
    • Erosion of Job Security: The new codes ease the norms for hiring and firing workers in establishments with up to 300 employees, without government approval, reducing job stability. Eg: Earlier, firms with over 100 workers needed government permission for retrenchment; this threshold has now tripled.
    • Dilution of Social Security Coverage: The Social Security Code, 2020, merges multiple welfare laws but leaves vast sections of informal workers outside its effective coverage due to unclear implementation mechanisms. Eg: Gig and platform workers are included in name, but lack defined contributions and benefits, weakening the universal welfare vision Ambedkar championed.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Enforcement and Rehabilitation: Ensure strict implementation of anti-bonded labour laws with timely rescue, rehabilitation, and compensation for victims.
    • Empower Workers through Unionisation and Awareness: Promote unionisation among informal workers and spread legal awareness to build collective bargaining power and prevent exploitation.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2018] Despite implementation of various programmes for eradication of poverty by the government in India, poverty is still existing.’ Explain by giving reasons.

    Linkage: Bonded labour is a manifestation of extreme poverty and the failure of poverty alleviation programmes to reach the most vulnerable, forcing them into debt bondage.

  • Govt. approves ‘Caste Census’

    Why in the News?

    In a landmark move, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) has approved the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 2025 population census for the first time since India’s independence.

    What is Caste Census?

    • A caste census is the process of recording individuals’ caste identities during a national census.
    • It aims to gather data on the distribution and socio-economic status of different caste groups, helping inform policies related to affirmative action, social justice, and welfare programs in India.
    • Caste plays a significant role in the country’s social, economic, and political life.
    • History of Caste Census:
      • British India (1881–1931): Caste enumeration was part of the decennial census under British rule, used for administrative purposes.
      • Post-Independence (1951): After independence, the Indian government, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, discontinued caste enumeration to promote national unity and avoid social divisions.
      • 1961 Directive: States were allowed to collect their own data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs), leading to fragmented caste data collection at the state level.
      • 1980 Mandal Commission: The commission recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs, fuelling the demand for caste-based data. The lack of national caste data made the implementation of such policies contentious.
      • 2011 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC): The SECC collected caste data, but it was not officially integrated into the census, and its findings were not fully released, drawing criticism for lack of transparency and application.

    Implications of Caste Census:

    • Political: It can help improve representation for marginalized groups and ensure better-targeted welfare programs.
    • Social: Unveils intersectional disparities, helping identify gaps in services like education, healthcare, and social protection.
    • Policy: Aids in shaping reservation policies and resource allocation for poverty alleviation.
    • Opposition and Concerns: Some worry it may reinforce caste-based divisions, particularly among upper-caste groups and certain political factions.
    • Electoral and Governance: Accurate data influences electoral strategies, helping parties address community-specific needs.
    • Legal and Administrative Impact: The 2025 caste enumeration raises issues regarding data collection, classification, and use, ensuring it is applied effectively without reinforcing caste-based disparities.
    [UPSC 2008] Amongst the following States, which one has the highest percentage of rural population (on the basis of the Census, 2001)?

    Options: (a) Himachal Pradesh* (b) Bihar (c) Odisha (d) Uttar Pradesh

     

  • Hon’ble President confers Padma Awards, 2025

    Why in the News?

    Padma Awards 2025 recognised 139 individuals for their exceptional contributions across various fields. Notable awardees include actor S. Ajith Kumar, singer Pankaj Udhas, and cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin.

    About Padma Awards:

    • The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve.
    • These awards recognize outstanding achievements in various fields, particularly public service.
    • The GoI introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954, with the three classes (Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg) renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
    • The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to names.
    • The number of awards given annually is capped at 120 (excluding posthumous awards and awards to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs).

    Award Categories:

    1. Padma Vibhushan: For ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
    2. Padma Bhushan: For ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
    3. Padma Shri: For ‘distinguished service.’

    Eligibility and Nomination:

    • Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister, with final approval from the President.
    • Eligibility Criteria:
      • Open to all individuals, regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
      • Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
      • Awards are generally not given posthumously, with exceptions in extraordinary cases.
      • A recipient can be considered for a higher category only after five years since their last Padma award.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:

    1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.

    2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once.

    3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.

    Which of the above statements are not correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3*

     

  • [29th April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Role in a risk society: how women bear a disproportionate burden

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2019] What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space?

    Linkage: The article details talk about the various challenges that contribute to women bearing a disproportionate burden, including socio-economic inequalities, health risks, and the burden of caregiving roles.

     

    Mentor’s Comment: In a risk society — where modernisation creates new, man-made dangers like pandemics or climate crises — women face deeper vulnerabilities due to caregiving burdens, poor health, insecure work, and limited access to aid or resources. This gendered risk is not incidental but structural.

    This is relevant for GS Paper 1 (Indian Society) and themes like “Challenges for women across time and space”.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The term ‘risk society’, coined by Ulrich Beck in his book Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, refers to a shift from an industrial society to a society where uncertainty and dangers, caused by technology and environmental changes, play a larger role in shaping our lives.

    Why are women more vulnerable to the consequences of risks in a risk society, especially in developing countries?

    • Unequal Access to Resources: Women often have less access to land, credit, education, and technology compared to men. Eg: In rural areas of Africa and South Asia, women farmers typically control smaller plots and have less access to irrigation or improved seeds, making them more vulnerable to climate shocks like droughts.
    • Caregiving Responsibilities Increase Exposure: Women are usually responsible for caregiving roles (childcare, eldercare, healthcare), exposing them more to environmental and health risks. Eg: During the COVID-19 pandemic, women healthcare workers (70% of health workforce globally) faced higher exposure to the virus.
    • Greater Health Vulnerabilities: Due to physiological factors and social inequalities (like poor nutrition), women face higher health risks during environmental crises. Eg: In India, 57% of women suffer from anaemia (NFHS-5), making them more vulnerable during food shortages or health crises.
    • Social and Cultural Norms Deepen Disadvantages: Gender norms often prioritize men’s needs over women’s during disasters, leading to unequal relief, recovery, and aid access. Eg: After natural disasters like the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, women had lower survival rates partly because cultural norms restricted their ability to swim or climb trees.
    • Economic Insecurity Limits Resilience: Women are overrepresented in informal, low-wage, and insecure jobs, making it harder for them to recover from economic disruptions. Eg: During lockdowns in 2020, women in informal sectors (like domestic work or street vending) lost incomes faster and found it harder to regain employment.

    How do manufactured risks differ from natural risks?

    Aspect Natural Risks Manufactured Risks
    Origin of the Risks Arise from natural events or phenomena without human intervention. Result from human activities, often related to technological, industrial, or environmental actions
    Eg. Earthquakes, floods, storms Chernobyl nuclear disaster, pollution from industrial activities
    Predictability and Control Typically unpredictable, though some can be forecasted with scientific tools. Often foreseeable and manageable through technologies or regulations.
    Eg. Earthquakes (hard to predict), hurricanes (can be forecasted) Air pollution (can be reduced through cleaner technologies)
    Scope and Impact Often localized, though some (e.g., pandemics) can have widespread effects. Tend to have global implications, affecting large populations and interconnected systems.
    Eg. Flood in a specific region Climate change causing global consequences (e.g., rising sea levels, extreme weather)

    How did significant disasters like the Chernobyl nuclear accident and the COVID-19 pandemic reveal the vulnerabilities of an interconnected world?

    • Global Spread of Consequences: Both disasters showed how localized events can have widespread, global implications due to the interconnectedness of modern society. Eg: The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 released radioactive material into the atmosphere, which was carried by wind and affected countries across Europe, highlighting how environmental risks can transcend national borders. Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic, originating in China, spread rapidly across the globe, disrupting economies and health systems worldwide.
    • Overwhelming Existing Systems: Both events overwhelmed existing infrastructures, revealing vulnerabilities in global systems that were ill-equipped to handle large-scale crises. Eg: In Chernobyl, the failure to control the nuclear fallout showed the inadequacies of disaster management and safety protocols, especially with complex technologies. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed weaknesses in healthcare systems, even in developed countries, as hospitals were overwhelmed with patients and unable to cope with the rapid spread of the virus.
    • Amplification of Inequalities: Both disasters deepened existing inequalities, demonstrating how interconnected risks can exacerbate vulnerabilities for marginalized groups. Eg: Chernobyl disproportionately affected nearby populations, including poorer communities, who were more vulnerable to health impacts due to limited access to resources and healthcare. The COVID-19 pandemic similarly highlighted how marginalized groups, such as low-income workers and people in developing countries, suffered more from economic disruption and limited access to healthcare.

    Who primarily bears the burden of managing risks in households, especially related to environmental and health hazards?

    • Women as Primary Caregivers: In many societies, especially in developing countries, women are the primary caregivers and household managers, placing them at the forefront of managing health and environmental risks. Eg: Women often handle household chores such as cooking, cleaning, and caring for children or elderly family members, putting them at increased exposure to risks like air pollution from solid fuel use or water contamination.
    • Gendered Roles in Resource Management: Women are frequently responsible for collecting water, gathering fuel, and managing food resources, making them more vulnerable to environmental hazards like water scarcity, pollution, and food insecurity. Eg: In rural areas, women often walk long distances to collect water, and if these water sources are contaminated, they face health risks directly, such as waterborne diseases.
    • Economic and Social Vulnerabilities: Women’s economic position and access to resources are often limited, making it harder for them to recover from environmental or health-related disasters. Their roles as caregivers are frequently undervalued, and they often lack the financial independence or support to manage risks effectively. Eg: In the aftermath of climate-related disasters like floods or droughts, women, especially in rural or low-income households, may face greater difficulties in accessing relief or rebuilding their livelihoods, further exacerbating their vulnerability.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): Launched in 2008 to tackle climate change by promoting renewable energy and enhancing climate resilience (e.g., National Solar Mission).
    • Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission): Initiated in 2014 to improve sanitation and reduce health hazards through waste management and toilet construction.
    • Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): Launched in 2016 to provide crop insurance, protecting farmers from losses due to natural calamities.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Gender-Responsive Policies: Develop and implement policies that address the specific needs of women in disaster management, healthcare, and environmental sustainability to reduce vulnerabilities.
    • Enhancing Access to Resources and Technology: Improve access to education, technology, and financial resources for women, particularly in rural areas, to enable them to better manage and mitigate risks.

  • In news: Haji Pir Pass

    Why in the News?

    The recent Pahalgam terror attack has revived debates on India’s 1966 decision to surrender the Haji Pir Pass to Pakistan during Tashkent Agreement of 1966.

    This move is compared to the Soviet Union’s 1954 transfer of Crimea, which created lasting security challenges.

    About Haji Pir Pass:

    • The Haji Pir Pass is located in the Pir Panjal Range of Jammu and Kashmir, at an altitude of 2,637 meters (8,652 feet).
    • It connects Poonch in India to Rawalakot in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
    • Historically, it was a vital route for connecting Jammu to the Kashmir Valley before 1947, making it an essential part of India’s transportation network.
    • Post-partition, it became part of PoK and, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, India recaptured it under Operation Bakshi.
    • However, it was returned to Pakistan following the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, a decision criticized by many experts.

    How Haji Pir Pass is a Chokepoint?

    • Strategic Military Route: The pass provides Pakistan with the ability to control and monitor the Kashmir Valley from a high-altitude position, serving as a key route for military logistics and infiltration.
    • Gateway for Infiltration: Historically, it has been used for militant infiltration into India, fuelling insurgency and instability in Kashmir.
    • Shortened Military Access: Retaining the pass would have reduced the distance between Poonch and Uri from 282 km to 56 km, improving India’s military logistics and rapid deployment.
    • Control over Key Terrain: Controlling the pass enables domination of the surrounding hills, limiting Pakistan’s ability to sustain military pressure and infiltration.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • The history and evolution of monsoon forecasting in India

    Why in the News?

    The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has predicted that the rainfall during the June-September southwest monsoon season will be higher than usual, around 105% of the average rainfall over a long period.

    What are the main factors that influence the Indian monsoon, as mentioned by the IMD?

    • El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): El Niño, which is characterized by warming sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, tends to reduce monsoon rainfall over India. Eg, during the 2015 El Niño event, India experienced a weakened monsoon and below-normal rainfall.
    • Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): The IOD refers to temperature differences between the western and eastern Indian Ocean. A positive IOD (warmer waters in the west) is typically linked to above-average rainfall in India, while a negative IOD can lead to drought conditions. Eg,2019 saw a positive IOD, which helped counterbalance the El Niño and brought more rainfall.
    • Himalayan Snow Cover: As observed by Blanford, the amount of snow accumulation in the Himalayas influences the monsoon. A thicker snow cover in the winter months often leads to increased rainfall during the subsequent monsoon. Eg, years with heavy snowfall in the Himalayas tend to see better monsoon rainfall in regions like Northwest India.

    How did Blanford contribute to the development of monsoon forecasting in India?

    • Identified the Snow-Monsoon Relationship: Blanford discovered an inverse relationship between the amount of snow accumulated in the Himalayas during winter and the subsequent monsoon rainfall over India. He hypothesized that greater snow accumulation led to a stronger monsoon. This was the basis for early monsoon predictions. Eg: Between 1882-1885, Blanford used Himalayan snow cover data to predict the intensity of the monsoon, marking a key step in systematic weather forecasting.
    • First Long-Range Forecast (1886): Blanford made India’s first long-range monsoon forecast in 1886, predicting the seasonal rainfall across India and Burma based on his snow-rain hypothesis. This was a pioneering effort in utilizing long-term data for weather predictions. Eg: Blanford’s 1886 forecast was the first to consider annual snowfall patterns in the Himalayas to predict the monsoon’s arrival and intensity across the entire Indian subcontinent.
    • Foundation for Modern Meteorology: Blanford’s work laid the foundation for further development in meteorology and forecasting. His research on snow cover influenced future meteorologists, including Sir John Eliot and Sir Gilbert Walker, who refined and expanded his methods using new data sources and statistical models. Eg: Blanford’s ideas directly influenced later meteorologists, helping to evolve more comprehensive models, including those considering global atmospheric factors.

    Why were IMD’s forecasts inaccurate between 1932 and 1987?

    • Outdated Predictors: The parameters identified by Sir Gilbert Walker, such as the Southern Oscillation and other atmospheric factors, had lost their significance over time, meaning their relationship with the monsoon was no longer consistent. This led to inaccurate forecasts. Eg: For instance, in the period 1932-1987, the forecast errors were significant, with average errors of 12.33 cm for the peninsula and 9.9 cm for Northwest India, indicating the failure of the existing model.
    • Failure to Adapt to New Data: Despite attempts to tweak Walker’s model, the IMD did not fully integrate new meteorological data and evolving atmospheric conditions, leading to persistent inaccuracies in monsoon prediction. Eg: The model failed to predict the 1987 drought, highlighting the inadequacy of the forecasting system during this period and the inability to account for changing atmospheric patterns.

    How has the IMD’s forecasting system improved since 2007?

    • Introduction of Statistical Ensemble Forecasting System (SEFS): In 2007, the IMD introduced the SEFS, which combined multiple models to generate a more robust prediction. This reduced the error margin and improved the accuracy of forecasts by considering different possible outcomes. Eg: The SEFS helped reduce the average absolute error in forecasts between 2007 and 2018 to 5.95% of the long-period average (LPA), compared to a higher 7.94% error in the earlier period (1995-2006).
    • Launch of the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS): In 2012, the IMD launched the MMCFS, which integrated ocean, atmosphere, and land data for more accurate predictions. This coupled dynamic model enabled better predictions by accounting for the interactions between various climate factors. Eg: The MMCFS contributed to more accurate monsoon forecasts in the years following its introduction, helping the IMD predict monsoon patterns with greater precision.

    What impact did the Monsoon Mission Coupled Forecasting System (MMCFS) have on IMD’s accuracy?

    • Improved Forecast Accuracy by Integrating Multiple Data Sources: The MMCFS combined data from the ocean, atmosphere, and land, allowing for a more holistic and accurate monsoon forecast. This helped the IMD provide more reliable predictions by considering the dynamic interactions between various climate components. Eg: After the introduction of MMCFS in 2012, the IMD was able to produce more precise monsoon predictions, particularly in terms of seasonal rainfall.
    • Enhanced Long-Term Predictive Capabilities: The coupled model allowed the IMD to improve long-term monsoon predictions by simulating real-world climate interactions more accurately, reducing errors in forecasting and enhancing the reliability of predictions over longer time spans. Eg: The model helped improve predictions such as the 2014 monsoon season, where the forecast matched the actual rainfall more closely than earlier years, highlighting its effectiveness in reducing forecast errors.

    Way forward: 

    • Integration of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Leveraging AI and ML can further refine IMD’s forecasting models by analyzing vast datasets more efficiently and identifying hidden patterns in climate behavior, improving the accuracy of short- and long-term monsoon predictions.
    • Collaboration with Global Climate Agencies: Strengthening partnerships with international climate research institutions can enhance data sharing and provide more comprehensive insights into global climate drivers affecting the Indian monsoon.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2015] How far do you agree that the behavior of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to humanizing landscapes? Discuss.

    Linkage: Forecasting is essential for understanding the behavior of the Indian monsoon. This article explores the evolution of monsoon forecasting in India, particularly by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).