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GS Paper: GS1

  • [10th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Empowering women in agriculture for food security

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

    Linkage: Women’s empowerment and the critical need to incorporate gender concerns into programme design and implementation. The article extensively discuss how empowering women in agriculture is fundamental to achieving food security. For instance, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognize, support, and enhance the role of women in ensuring food security, fostering economic prosperity, and promoting sustainability.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The United Nations has declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognise the important but often overlooked role women play in growing food around the world. Over 100 countries supported this move, which highlights a major issue: while women produce up to 80% of food in developing countries, they are still left out when it comes to owning land. For example, in India, although 80% of working women are in farming, only 14% own land.

     Today’s editorial talks about the problems faced by women farmers, which is an important topic for GS Paper I (women-related issues), GS Paper II (social justice), and GS Paper III (agriculture).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The International Year of the Woman Farmer in 2026 should focus on supporting strong, sustainable farming and ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in agriculture.

    What challenges do women farmers face in land and credit access?

    • Low Land Ownership Limits Entitlements: Despite forming nearly 80% of the economically active female workforce in agriculture, only 14% of landowners in India are women, and just 8.3% according to NFHS data. Eg: A woman working her family’s farmland may still lack legal ownership, preventing her from claiming government subsidies or schemes like PM-KISAN.
    • Difficulty Accessing Credit: Without land titles, women are often denied collateral-based loans from banks and formal financial institutions. Eg: A woman farmer in rural Bihar cannot access a loan for irrigation equipment because she doesn’t hold a land deed, pushing her to rely on informal moneylenders.
    • Inadequate Access to Financial Technology and Information: Women have limited access to mobile phones and agricultural advisories, which are crucial for credit applications and crop planning. Eg: In Assam, women supported by the ENACT project lacked timely access to climate forecasts, making it harder to plan credit usage for flood-resistant crop seeds.

    Why is 2026 declared the International Year of the Woman Farmer?

    • To Recognise Women’s Vital Role in Agriculture: Women contribute to 60–80% of food production in developing countries and nearly 39% of the agricultural labour force in South Asia.  
    • To Raise Awareness About Structural Challenges: The declaration aims to highlight barriers women face such as limited land ownership, market access, and credit availability. Eg: Only 14% of agricultural landowners in India are women, restricting their ability to access loans and government schemes.
    • To Promote Gender Equality and Empowerment: It seeks to promote gender-transformative agricultural development by encouraging inclusive policies, technology access, and self-help group participation. Eg: The ENACT project in Assam supports women farmers by linking them with agri-experts and providing mobile-based advisories to adapt to climate change.

    What is the ENACT project?

    The ENACT project stands for Enhancing Climate Adaptation of Vulnerable Communities through Nature-based Solutions and Gender-Transformative Approaches. Supported by the World Food Programme (WFP), the Government of Assam, and funded by Norway, it empowers women farmers in Nagaon

    How does the ENACT project help women farmers adapt to climate change?

    • Access to Climate-Resilient Agricultural Information: ENACT provides weekly agricultural and climate advisories through mobile phones, enabling informed decision-making. Eg: Over 300 women farmers in 17 villages of Assam’s Nagaon district receive timely updates on weather and crop planning.
    • Promotion of Flood-Resistant Crop Varieties: The project introduces flood-tolerant rice varieties and promotes livelihood diversification to reduce climate-related risks. Eg: In Roha village, new rice varieties introduced by the project can survive underwater, helping farmers secure better yields during floods.
    • Strengthening Institutional and Technical Support: ENACT facilitates collaboration with local institutions, including agri-departments, universities, and meteorological agencies. Eg: Climate Adaptation Information Centres offer video conferencing tools for expert guidance and community meetings.

    What policies support women farmers in India?

    • Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Enhances skills, capacity building, and promotes sustainable agriculture among women farmers. Eg: MKSP supports self-help groups (SHGs) in improving agricultural practices and income generation.
    • Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation: Provides 50% to 80% subsidies on farm machinery and equipment to reduce drudgery and improve productivity. Eg: Women farmers receive subsidised tools for sowing, weeding, and harvesting, enabling more efficient farm operations.
    • National Food Security Mission (NFSM) – Women’s Component: Allocates 30% of the budget for women farmers in select States and Union Territories to improve food production. Eg: Women beneficiaries receive support in seed distribution, training, and input provision under NFSM.

    How does climate change impact women farmers?

    • Increased Domestic Burden and Agricultural Risk: Climate variability forces women to juggle household responsibilities with unpredictable farming conditions. Eg: In Assam, women like Nirmali Bora Hazarika report increased workload due to erratic weather and flood-prone crops.
    • Limited Access to Climate Information and Resources: Women have less access to weather updates, advisory services, and resilient crop technologies. Eg: Many women farmers lack mobile phones or connectivity to receive timely climate advisories.
    • Greater Vulnerability to Crop Loss and Livelihood Disruptions: Floods, droughts, and extreme weather events hit women-led farms harder due to lack of land rights and insurance. Eg: Without land ownership, women cannot claim compensation or loans to recover from climate-induced losses.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Land Rights and Legal Ownership: Governments must promote joint land titles, ensure inheritance rights, and simplify land registration processes for women. Eg: Initiatives like the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) can help ensure legal recognition of women’s land ownership.
    • Expand Financial and Technological Access: Strengthen women’s inclusion in formal credit systems, promote mobile-based agricultural advisories, and invest in climate-resilient infrastructure. Eg: Scaling up programs like ENACT can equip women with timely climate information, insurance, and input support.

  • Evidence of Pre-Harappan Human Presence discovered in Rann of Kutch

    Why in the News?

    IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.

    About the Khadir Island Sites:

    • Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
    • Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
    • Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
    • Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
    • Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
    • Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
    • Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.

    Key Findings:

    • Archaeological Significance:
      • Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
      • Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
      • A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
    • Diet and Food Practices:
      • Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
      • The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
    • Lifestyle and Settlement:
      • These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
      • They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
    • Tool Use:
      • Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
      • Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
      • Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
    • Trade and Cultural Links:
      • Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
      • Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:

    Historical place : Well known for

    1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

    2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art

    3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

     

  • Massive eruption of Italy’s Mount Etna

    Why in the News?

    Mount Etna, Europe’s largest active volcano, has erupted sending ash, smoke, and rock fragments several kilometres into the sky.

    Why do Volcanoes Erupt?

    • Magma Formation: Deep within Earth, high temperature and pressure melt rocks into magma.
    • Gas Expansion: Magma contains gases like water vapor, CO₂, and SO₂. As magma rises, the pressure drops, allowing these gases to form bubbles, increasing internal pressure.
    • Crustal Weaknesses: At tectonic boundaries or mantle plumes, cracks and faults in Earth’s crust provide pathways for magma to escape.
    • Eruption Mechanism:
      • As pressure builds, magma is pushed upwards.
      • If blocked, the gas expansion can explode through the crust, ejecting lava, ash, and gases.
    • Signals: If magma flow is suddenly stopped by solid rock, it may create low-frequency seismic waves (pre-eruption tremors).

    Next Census to conclude by March 2027

    About Mount Etna:

    • Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
    • Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
    • Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
    • Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
    • Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
    • Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).

    Reasons Behind the June 2025 Eruption:

    • Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
      • Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
      • Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
    • Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:

    1. Pyroclastic debris

    2. Ash and dust

    3. Nitrogen compounds

    4. Sulphur compounds

    How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) Only four*

     

  • Next Census to conclude by March 2027

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India will conduct its next population census by March 1, 2027, after an unprecedented 16-year gap.

    About the Census of India:

    • Definition: The Census of India is a nationwide decadal exercise that gathers demographic, social, economic, and cultural data from every resident, regardless of citizenship.
    • Authority: It is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General (Ministry of Home Affairs) and Census Commissioner under the Census Act, 1948.
    • Utility: Data from the census is used to formulate policies, redraw electoral boundaries, and implement welfare schemes.

    Significance of the Upcoming Census:

    • Reference Dates: Most of India will use March 1, 2027, while Ladakh, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand will use October 1, 2026.
    • Two-Phase Format: It will be conducted in two stages — House Listing and Housing Schedule, followed by Population Enumeration, which will include caste data.
    • Digital Firsts: This will be India’s first digital census, using a mobile app and offering self-enumeration via an online portal (for NPR-updated households).
    • Preparation: The 24 lakh enumeration blocks identified for the 2021 census will be reused.
    • Delimitation Link: The 84th Constitutional Amendment (2001) mandates that delimitation of constituencies be based on the first census after 2026.
    • Women’s Reservation: The 33% women’s reservation law (128th Amendment) also depends on data from this census.
    • New Inclusion: The upcoming census will include caste enumeration, likely as a plain list, without grouping under OBC.
    • NPR Update: No official announcement has been made regarding an update to the National Population Register (NPR), though it holds data for 119 crore residents.

    History of Census in India:

    1. Ancient Mentions: Rig Veda (800–600 BCE) and Arthashastra (321–296 BCE) mentioned population counting for taxation and governance.
    2. Early Colonial Efforts:
      • Partial censuses conducted in Allahabad (1824), Banaras (1827–28), and Dacca (1830).
      • Fort St. George conducted returns in 1836–37; quinquennial returns started in Madras (1851–67).
    3. First Attempted Pan-India Census:
      • 1872: Non-synchronous census; not all British territories covered.
      • 17 questions were asked via a house register.
    4. First Modern Census:
      • 1881: Conducted under W.C. Plowden; considered the first synchronous and scientific census of India.
      • Covered most of British India except Kashmir, French & Portuguese territories.
    5. Subsequent Censuses (1891–1941):
      • Held every 10 years: 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, and 1941.
      • Introduced and refined questions on caste, religion, language, literacy, occupation, disability, etc.
    6. 1941 Census:
      • Conducted during World War II under difficult conditions.
      • Introduced sampling, and used individual slips for detailed data.

    Caste Enumeration to Begin:

    • Caste data was last collected in 1931, excluding SC/ST information.
    • Post-1951 Trend: From 1951 to 2011, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes data were recorded.
    • SECC 2011: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census included caste data, but it was never released.
    • Data Entry Field: A new drop box for caste will be added beside the existing SC/ST section.
    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.

    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

  • Integral Humanism: The Philosophy of Deendayal Upadhyay

    Why in the News?

    A mainstream political party is celebrating 60 years of Integral Humanism (Ekatm Manav-vad), a political philosophy introduced by Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya.

    About Deendayal Upadhyaya and His Contributions:

    • Birth and Legacy: Born on September 25, 1916, in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; his birth anniversary is marked as Antyodaya Diwas since 2014.
    • RSS and BJS Roles: He was a pracharak of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and co-founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS).
    • Leadership: Served as President of BJS, laying its ideological foundation.
    • Antyodaya Concept: Coined “Antyodaya”, meaning upliftment of the last person, central to several welfare schemes.
    • Advocated Ideas: Promoted Swadeshi (self-reliance) and decentralization of power for inclusive development.
    • Inspired Schemes:
    • Mysterious Death: Found dead on February 11, 1968, near Mughalsarai railway station, now renamed Deendayal Nagar. The case remains unresolved.

    His Philosophy of Integral Humanism:

    • Introduction: Proposed in 1965 through four lectures in Mumbai, promoting Indian values over foreign ideologies.
    • Core Idea: Aims for holistic development — body, mind, intellect, and soul — grounded in cultural and spiritual ethics.
    • Chiti and Dharma: Defined ‘Chiti’ as the soul of the nation and ‘Dharma’ as the ethical base of national integrity.
    • Six Economic Objectives:
      1. Minimum living standard for all citizens.
      2. Global welfare through Indian values.
      3. Employment for all able-bodied individuals.
      4. No wastage of natural resources.
      5. Promotion of indigenous technology.
      6. Flexible industrial ownership based on practicality.
    • Further Influence: Expanded by Dattopant Thengdi, founder of Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS).
    • Intellectual Roots: Drew inspiration from Daishik Shastra (1923), a text respected by Gandhi and Tilak; studied during a visit to Almora in 1958–59.
    [UPSC 2020] One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is:

    Options: (a) the final goal of a stateless society * (b) class struggle. (c) abolition of private property. (d) economic determinism.

     

  • Kheer Bhawani Festival

    Why in the News?

    The recent terror attack in Pahalgam has led to lower turnout at the annual Jyestha Ashtami festival at the Kheer Bhawani temple in Kashmir.

    About the Kheer Bhawani Festival:

    • What is it: The Kheer Bhawani Festival, also called Mela Kheer Bhawani, is celebrated every year on Jyestha Ashtami by the Kashmiri Pandit community.
    • Location of Celebration: It takes place at the Kheer Bhawani Temple in Tulmulla village, Ganderbal district, Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Deity Worshipped: The temple is dedicated to Goddess Ragnya Devi, an important deity in the Kashmiri Hindu tradition.
    • Sacred Spring and Ritual: The temple sits over a natural spring. Devotees offer kheer (rice and milk pudding) as a sacred offering.
    • Largest Kashmiri Hindu Gathering: It is the biggest Hindu religious gathering in the Kashmir Valley after the Amarnath Yatra.
    • Beliefs about Water Color: Devotees believe that the spring’s color changes based on the region’s condition:
      • Light colors mean good times.
      • Black water is a warning sign (reportedly turned black in 1990, just before the Kashmiri Pandit Massacre).
    • Historical Legacy: The temple structure was built by Maharaja Pratap Singh and later renovated by Maharaja Hari Singh in the early 1900s.
    • Ancient Mentions: References to the site are found in Kalhana’s Rajtarangini, Bhrigu Samhita, and Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari, which also mentions flooding in Tula Mula.

    Significance of the Festival and Temple:

    • Cultural Importance: The temple serves as a symbol of faith and identity for Kashmiri Pandits, especially those displaced.
    • Communal Harmony: Local Muslim communities assist in festival arrangements, showcasing communal unity and harmony.
    • Spiritual Symbolism: The temple spring, called Syandh, holds spiritual meaning and is not connected to the Sindhu (Indus) River.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Tradition – State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only  (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • What if China stops Brahmaputra Water? 

    Why in the News?

    Assam CM Himanta Biswa Sarma dismissed Pakistan’s claim about China blocking the Brahmaputra’s water as a baseless panic tactic with no scientific substance.

    Sarma’s Clarification on the Brahmaputra Issue:

    • Brahmaputra is an Indian river and not fully controlled by China.
    • Only about 30–35% of the river’s flow comes from China, mainly through glacial melt and rainfall on the Tibetan Plateau.
    • A major 65–70% of the river’s volume is generated within India, especially from monsoon rains and Indian tributaries.
    • He explained that the river’s flow increases from 2,000–3,000 cubic metres/second at the Indo-China border to 15,000–20,000 m³/s in Assam during the monsoon.
    • This proves that India plays a dominant role in sustaining the river, not China.
    • Even if China tried to restrict the river’s flow, it could help reduce annual floods in Assam that displace thousands of people.
    • He confirmed that China has never threatened to weaponize the Brahmaputra.

    About Brahmaputra River System:

    • The Brahmaputra River System is one of the major Himalayan drainage systems, along with the Ganga and Indus.
    • Stretch: It stretches over 2,900 kilometres, making it one of the longest rivers in Asia.
    • Origin: It originates in the Chemayungdung glacier in southwestern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo River.
    • Catchment countries:
      • The river flows through Tibet, India (Arunachal Pradesh and Assam), and Bangladesh.
      • In Tibet, the river flows slowly with a wide, navigable channel for about 640 km.
      • Upon entering India through Arunachal Pradesh, it becomes the Dihang, and later merges with Lohit and Dibang rivers to be called the Brahmaputra.
      • In Bangladesh, it is called the Jamuna, which merges with the Ganga (Padma) and Meghna before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
    • The world’s largest and smallest river islands, Majuli and Umananda, are located on the Brahmaputra in Assam.
    • Important Tributaries:
      • Left-bank tributaries: Lhasa, Nyang, Parlung Zangbo, Lohit, Dhanashri, Kolong
      • Right-bank tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Beki, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
    • States the River Flows Through in India: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
    • Major Cities on the River: Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur, and Guwahati.
    • Major Hydel Projects:
      • Arunachal Pradesh: Subansiri, Kameng, Ranganadi, etc.
      • Assam: Kopili
      • Sikkim: Teesta, Rangit
      • Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram: Multiple local hydropower stations
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Brahmaputra River, which of the following is/are tributary/ tributaries of Brahmaputra?

    1. Dibang

    2. Kameng

    3. Lohit

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d)1, 2 and 3*

     

  • D Gukesh defeats World no.1 Magnus Carlsen 

    Why in the News?

    D Gukesh, the reigning World Chess Champion, achieved a milestone by defeating world No. 1 Magnus Carlsen for the first time in a classical game during Round 6 of Norway Chess.

    Who is D. Gukesh?

    • About: D Gukesh is an Indian chess grandmaster (born on May 29, 2006) and the current World Chess Champion.
    • Early Start: He started playing chess at the age of seven and quickly rose to fame due to his extraordinary skill.
    • Topmost Indian Player: In September 2023, he became India’s highest-rated chess player, ending Viswanathan Anand’s 37-year reign.
    • Global Recognition: He is considered one of the most talented chess prodigies in the world today.

    His Accomplishments:

    • FIDE Master Title: In 2015, he became a FIDE Master after winning the Under-9 Asian School Chess Championship.
    • International Master: In March 2018, he became an International Master at the age of 11.
    • Grandmaster Milestone: At 12 years and 7 months, he became the second-youngest Grandmaster in history.
    • World Youth Champion: He won the Under-12 World Youth Chess Championship in 2018.
    • Asian Youth Success: He won five gold medals at the 2018 Asian Youth Championships in classical, rapid, blitz, and team events.
    • Chess Olympiad 2022: In the 44th Chess Olympiad, he won individual gold on board one and helped India win team bronze.
    • Victory Over Carlsen: In 2022, he defeated Magnus Carlsen in rapid chess at the Aimchess Rapid tournament.
    • Crossed 2700 Elo: He crossed the 2700 Elo rating in 2022, becoming the third-youngest to achieve it.
    • Broke Carlsen’s Record: In August 2023, he crossed 2750 Elo, becoming the youngest ever to do so.
    • Candidates Tournament: He won the 2024 Candidates Tournament, becoming the youngest player to ever win it.
    • World Champion Title: On December 12, 2024, at 18 years and 195 days, he defeated Ding Liren to become the youngest undisputed World Chess Champion.
    • Indian Chess Legacy: He became only the second Indian after Viswanathan Anand to win the world title.
    • Chess Olympiad 2024: At the 45th Chess Olympiad, he helped India win team gold and secured individual gold.
    • National Honour: In January 2025, he received the Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award, India’s highest sporting honour.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. In the finals of the 45th Chess Olympiad held in 2024, Gukesh Dommaraju became the world’s youngest winner after defeating the Russian player Ian Nepomniachtchi.

    II. Abhimanyu Mishra, an American chess player, holds the record of becoming world’s youngest ever Grandmaster.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: a) I only b) II only* c) Both I and II d) Neither I nor II

     

  • Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Why in the News?

    A recent archaeological survey has confirmed that Daojali Hading, located in Assam’s Dima Hasao district, was a Neolithic habitation zone over 2,700 years ago.

    About Daojali Hading Neolithic Site:

    • Location: It is an important Neolithic archaeological site located in Dima Hasao district, Assam, within the Langting-Mupa Reserve Forest.
    • How old is it: Recent surveys by a multidisciplinary team have confirmed the site as a settled Neolithic habitation zone, over 2,700 years old.
    • Key discoveries:
      • Furnace remains and iron slag, indicating early metallurgical activity.
      • Cord-marked pottery, grinding stones, mortars and pestles, and polished stone tools such as arrowheads, celts, and adzes.
    • Significance: These findings suggest that Daojali Hading was not just a tool-making site, but a functioning settlement where people lived, cooked, crafted tools, and worked with metals.

    Neolithic Site of Daojali Hading in Assam

    Back2Basics: Neolithic Period in India

    • The Neolithic Age in India began around 7,000 B.C. and lasted until 1,000 B.C. It is the final phase of the Stone Age, following the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages.
    • This period is marked by:
      • The beginning of settled agriculture andthe  domestication of animals.
      • Use of polished stone tools like axes, celts, and chisels.
      • Construction of mud and reed houses, sometimes using mud bricks.
      • Introduction of pottery in forms like grey ware, black burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
      • A community lifestyle with shared ownership of land and tools.
    • Neolithic people in India grew wheat, barley, rice, cotton, horse gram, and ragi, and domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.
    • They lived in circular or rectangular houses, near rivers and lakes, and relied on hunting, fishing, and early farming.

    Major Neolithic Sites in India:

    Region Site Key Features
    North-Western India Burzahom (Kashmir) Pit dwellings, stone tools, and animal domestication
    Gufkral (Kashmir) Early agriculture and handmade pottery
    North India Chirand (Bihar) Polished tools, fishing economy
    North-East India Daojali Hading (Assam) Discussed above.
    South India Utnur (Andhra Pradesh) Large stone structures, farming tools
    Pakistan (Indian Subcontinent) Mehrgarh (Balochistan) Earliest Neolithic site, settled farming, and granaries

     

    [UPSC 2021] Question: Consider the following pairs:

    Historical place: Well known for

    1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

    2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art

    3. Ganeshwar: Copper artefacts

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

     

  • 600-million-year-old stromatolites in the Himalayas tell the story of an ocean lost and Earth’s first breath

    Why in the News?

    A huge 600-million-year-old group of stromatolites was found in Chambaghat, Himachal Pradesh, sparking new interest in India’s ancient rocks and the early history of life on Earth.

    What are Stromatolites?

    Stromatolites are layered, reef-like structures formed by ancient blue-green algae called cyanobacteria. These tiny microbes trapped and bound sediments in shallow seas, creating mineral mounds over millions of years. They are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth.

    How do they contribute to understanding Earth’s early history?

    • Earliest Evidence of Life: Stromatolites, built by cyanobacteria over 3.5 billion years ago, are among the oldest records of life on Earth. Eg: Stromatolites in Australia date back to 3.6 billion years, showing microbial activity long before complex life existed.
    • Oxygen Production and Atmospheric Change: Cyanobacteria in stromatolites performed photosynthesis, releasing oxygen and leading to the Great Oxidation Event(~2.4 billion years ago). Eg: This oxygenation made the atmosphere suitable for the evolution of multicellular organisms.
    • Tectonic and Environmental Insights: Their presence in now-mountainous regions like Chambaghat in Himachal Pradesh, originally shallow seas, reveals tectonic shifts and lost oceans. Eg: The Chambaghat stromatolites formed in the Tethys Sea, later uplifted to the Himalayas by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

    Where was the recent significant stromatolite outcrop discovered? 

    A large outcrop was discovered in Chambaghat, Solan district, Himachal Pradesh. It is located in the pine-clad ridges at around 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. It belongs to the Krol Group, sedimentary rocks formed in the ancient Tethys Sea.

    Why is it unique?

    • Large and Well-Preserved Outcrop: The Chambaghat site features an extensive hill covered with stromatolites, not just a few isolated samples. Eg: Unlike other Indian sites where stromatolites are scattered or small, Chambaghat has a whole hill full of these structures, making it exceptional in scale and preservation.
    • Relatively Young Stromatolites in a High-Altitude Location: These stromatolites date back about 600 million years and are found at an altitude of 5,000–6,000 feet above sea level. Eg: Their presence so high in the Himalayas tells a story of tectonic uplift, where ancient shallow marine depositswere pushed up from the Tethys Sea due to India’s collision with Eurasia.
    • Accessible and Visible Geological Heritage: The site is easily accessible and visible to researchers, locals, and tourists, making it a prime candidate for preservationand education. Eg: Many stromatolite sites in India are obscure or hard to reach, but Chambaghat offers a natural exhibit that could help raise public awareness about Earth’s early history.

    Why is there scientific disagreement about the importance of the Chambaghat stromatolites?

    • Not True Fossils but Biosedimentary Structures: Some scientists argue that stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures, formed by trapped sediments and calcium carbonate, rather than preserved fossils of organisms. Eg: fossils are inaccurate because the original organisms are not preserved, only the structures formed by cyanobacteria.
    • Common and Widespread Geological Features: Stromatolites are found all over India and globally, so some experts feel the Chambaghat stromatolites are not a rare or unique discovery. Eg: The oldest stromatolites in India, like those in Dharwad, Karnataka (2,500 million years old), and worldwide (3.6 billion years old in Australia) are much older and more significant.
    • Not the Oldest or Most Unique Evidence of Life: While Chambaghat stromatolites are impressive, they are relatively young compared to other sites and not the earliest proof of life. Eg: Dr Arun Deep Ahluwalia notes that stromatolites in the Krol Belt are the youngest stromatolites, making them less important for studying the very earliest life forms.

    What is the significance of preserving stromatolite sites like Chambaghat? 

    • Educational and Scientific Value: Preserving stromatolite sites helps in studying Earth’s early life and geological history, providing valuable insights into how oxygenation of the atmosphere led to complex life. Eg: Chambaghat’s stromatolites can be used as an exhibit for students and researchers to understand the origin of life and ancient marine environments.
    • Cultural and Geoheritage Importance: Protecting these sites promotes public awareness and tourism, fostering a sense of pride and responsibility towards India’s unique geological heritage. Eg: Creating a Geoheritage Park at Chambaghat can engage locals, tourists, and schools, preserving the site while boosting local economy and education.

    Way forward: 

    • Formal Protection and Geoheritage Park Development: Declare Chambaghat stromatolite site a protected geological monument and develop it into a Geoheritage Park to ensure conservation, promote scientific research, and boost geo-tourism.
    • Public Awareness and Educational Outreach: Launch educational programs and community engagement initiatives involving schools, researchers, and local stakeholders to increase awareness about the site’s scientific and cultural significance.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also?

    Linkage: The growing importance of cryptocurrency, its disruptive potential in global finance, and its implications for India, specifically mentioning India’s significant number of crypto users. This PYQ demonstrates the UPSC’s interest in the fundamental understanding and societal effects of this technology.