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GS Paper: GS2

  • In a perilous world, India must read the tea leaves well 

    Why in the News?

    Recently, the world’s growing preference for military force over peaceful talks have made India’s old policy of staying neutral and keeping strategic independence no longer enough.

    Why is India’s neutrality no longer viable in the current global conflicts?

    • Erosion of Strategic Leverage in Multilateral Crises: Neutrality has diminished India’s influence during major global conflicts where clear moral or strategic stands are expected. Eg: During the Israel-Iran conflict, India’s equidistant stance failed to garner goodwill from Iran, while Israel saw no added strategic value either.
    • Increased Global Polarisation and Military Alignments:  The world is now split into rival power groups, and staying neutral is often seen as being unsure or unwilling to take a stand. Eg: The U.S. bombing of Iran’s nuclear sites with bunker buster bombs, along with the growing China-Russia-Iran partnership, shows that being neutral in such a situation can actually be a liability and hurt a country’s interests.
    • Loss of Support from Traditional Partners: India’s neutral approach during its own security crises has failed to rally international support. Eg: During the recent India-Pakistan conflict, most West Asian countries and even the U.S. remained non-committal, despite India’s outreach in the Global South.
    • Reduced Credibility of Non-Alignment in a Hard Power World: Global forums are increasingly emphasising military strength over moral positioning. Neutrality is no longer seen as leadership. Eg: At the Shangri-La Dialogue, the U.S. stressed hard power and Indo-Pacific dominance, sidelining softer, non-aligned narratives like India’s.

    What are the threats posed by the China-Pakistan military alliance?

    • Two-Front War Scenario: India faces the real risk of a coordinated military confrontation on both eastern and western borders. Eg: During the India-Pakistan conflict in May, intelligence revealed Pakistan’s preparedness using Chinese-supplied J-10C and JF-17 fighter jets, suggesting synchronised planning with China.
    • Enhanced Pakistani Military Capabilities: China’s transfer of advanced weaponry has significantly boosted Pakistan’s defence systems, improving its precision strike and surveillance capacity. Eg: Chinese radar, missile systems, and drone technology are now integrated into Pakistan’s command and control network, enhancing its offensive potential against India.
    • Asymmetric Nuclear Threat: The alliance magnifies the nuclear imbalance in the region, putting India at a strategic disadvantage. Eg: China and Pakistan together possess nearly a 5:1 advantage in nuclear warheads over India, escalating the deterrence challenge and increasing the risk of nuclear brinkmanship.

    How has India’s Israel-Iran policy impacted its West Asia standing?

    • Loss of Credibility as a Neutral Mediator: India’s attempt to balance ties between Israel and Iran has diluted its influence in the region, as it failed to take a principled stand when it was needed most. Eg: During the Israel-Iran conflict, India’s mere call for “restraint on all sides” disappointed Iran, which expected vocal support against targeted attacks by Israel and the U.S.
    • Strained Relations with Key Regional Powers: India’s visible tilt towards Israel in recent years has alienated several West Asian countries, undermining its strategic and energy interests. Eg: India’s growing defence and technology cooperation with Israel has made its Iran policy less credible, especially after Iran was diplomatically isolated in the recent conflict.

    What are the reforms needed to prepare India for a two-front war? (Way forward)

    • Strengthen Long-Duration War Capabilities: India must boost its ammunition reserves, logistics systems, and supply chain resilience to sustain prolonged conflicts on both fronts. Eg: The UK’s defence audit revealed critical gaps in its own war readiness—India too must conduct similar assessments to plug vulnerabilities.
    • Develop Advanced Technologies and AI Warfare: Investing in Artificial Intelligence (AI), drone warfare, loitering munitions, and electromagnetic systems is crucial to match modern battlefield requirements. Eg: Lessons from the Russia-Ukraine war show the growing role of AI-guided drones and precision weapons in shaping war outcomes.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2022] How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?

    Linkage: India’s role in emerging strategic alliances, emphasizing the need to understand how new groupings can re-shape India’s influence and standing in global politics. The article underscores that India’s foreign policy is currently facing an “existential crisis” due to events like the India-Pakistan conflict, the China-Pakistan nexus, and the Israel-Iran conflict, where “neutrality is no longer an option.

  • [pib] NAKSHA Programme 

    Why in the News?

    The Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development is set to launch the second phase of capacity building for the NAKSHA programme (NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations).

    About NAKSHA Program:

    • Overview: It was launched on 18th February 2025. It is a geospatial land survey initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, under the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP).
    • Objective: The programme aims to modernise urban land records, make property ownership more transparent, and streamline urban governance.
    • Funding: It is 100% centrally funded, with an estimated cost of ₹194 crore.
    • Significance: The programme was launched in response to India’s rapidly growing urban population, which is expected to exceed 600 million by 2031.

    Key Features:

    • Pilot Coverage: Implemented in 157 ULBs covering an area of 4,142.63 sq km, focusing on towns with an area of <35 sq km and a population of <2 lakh.
    • Drone-Based Survey: Uses drones equipped with LiDAR sensors and 5 cm resolution cameras to conduct aerial surveys.
    • Three-Stage Survey Process:
      • Drone Survey & Data Collection
      • Field Verification & Draft Mapping
      • Public Review & Finalisation
    • Integration with Legal Records: Field surveys validate and update property tax, ownership, and registration data.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements:

    1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.

    2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised.

    3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • [30th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A year later — colonial-era laws to new criminal codes

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] The Doctrine of Democratic Governance makes it necessary that the public perception of the integrity and commitment of civil servants becomes absolutely positive. Discuss.

    Linkage: The new criminal codes, through provisions like mandatory audio-video recording of searches and seizures, aim to improve the quality of investigation and ensure greater integrity and commitment from investigating officers (IOs). This directly seeks to foster a positive public perception of civil servants involved in law enforcement, aligning with the query’s emphasis on progress in the new codes.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  As India completes one year of implementing its overhauled criminal justice framework—comprising the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA)—the on-ground feedback is beginning to surface. A major highlight has been the operationalization of the ‘e-Sakshya’ app for real-time evidence collection. While it empowers investigation officers (IOs) and enhances transparency, several systemic and logistical constraints hinder its full potential. Despite attempts at modernization, the gap between legal reforms and infrastructural readiness threatens to blunt the progressive intent of these laws. This transitional phase is a crucial moment for policy correction and investment.

    Today’s editorial talks about the effectiveness of India’s new criminal laws—BNS, BNSS, and BSA. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Indian Polity & Governance) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently, India’s new criminal laws—BNS, BNSS, and BSA—mark a year of implementation. Technological tools like the e-Sakshya app aid progress, but feedback from investigating officers reveals key challenges and improvement needs.

    What are the key improvements brought by the BNS, BNSS, and BSA in the criminal justice system?

    • Modernization of Colonial Laws: The new laws replace the outdated Indian Penal Code (1860), CrPC (1973), and Indian Evidence Act (1872), aligning criminal justice with contemporary realities, citizen-centric values, and technological advancements.
    • Integration of Technology in Investigation: The BNSS mandates audio-video recording of critical procedures such as search, seizure, and statement recording. It supports the use of tools like the ‘e-Sakshya’ app for real-time digital evidence collection, improving transparency and accountability.
    • Improved Victim-Centric and Time-Bound Procedures: Provisions like seven-day deadlines for medical reports in rape cases and emphasis on video conferencing for witness examination under BNSS aim to ensure faster process, reduce trauma for victims, and increase judicial efficiency.

    How has the ‘e-Sakshya’ app enhanced evidence collection and policing?

    • Real-time digital documentation: The app enables investigating officers to capture photos and videos on the spot with geo-coordinates and a timestamp, ensuring authenticity and preventing tampering. For instance, during a search and seizure, the officer must record the process under Section 105 of BNSS, improving transparency.
    • Improved accountability in investigations: Investigating officers are now required to take selfies at crime scenes, ensuring that they personally conduct the investigation and don’t delegate it unofficially. This deters fabrication of evidence and builds a stronger chain of custody for trial.
    • Strengthened witness reliability: The visual capture of witness presence at the crime scene discourages denial of participation later in court. Eg when a suspect is made to show the place where a weapon or contraband is hidden, the recording serves as reliable secondary electronic evidence admissible in court.

    Why is digital integration through CCTNS and ICJS vital for the new laws’ success?

    • Seamless transition and registration of cases: The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS) ensures smooth FIR registration and jurisdictional transfers, enabling police stations to shift from old laws to BNS, BNSS, and BSA without disruption. For instance, zero FIRs are easily routed to the correct police stations within a state using CCTNS.
    • Interlinking of justice system pillars: The Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS) connects police with forensic labs, prosecution, courts, and jails, improving coordination and efficiency. This digital integration supports time-bound actions like forwarding medical examination reports or conducting video-based evidence collection as mandated under BNSS.
    Note: About Zero FIR It refers to a First Investigation Report (FIR) that is registered irrespective of the area where the offence is committed. The police in such a case can no longer claim that they have no jurisdiction.

    What are the challenges that hinder the effective implementation of the new criminal laws?

    • Inadequate digital infrastructure: Many police stations have only one tablet, and officers often use their personal phones to operate the e-Sakshya app, which requires Android version 10 or higher and at least 1GB of storage. This limits the ability to uniformly implement mandatory audio-video recording provisions under BNSS.
    • Lack of real-time integration with courts: While images and videos are stored on the National Government Cloud (NGC), courts still do not directly access this digital evidence through the ICJS. Instead, police submit evidence using pen drives, leading to duplication, extra costs, and delay in proceedings.
    • Forensic and legal bottlenecks: Despite the requirement of FSL expert visits under Section 176 of BNSS, forensic infrastructure in many states remains underdeveloped. Also, cybercrime evidence often needs expert analysis and testimony, but State forensic labs are yet to be notified under the IT Act, hampering admissibility of digital evidence.

    What reforms are needed to address them? (Way forward)

    • Strengthen digital infrastructure in police stations: The government should ensure that each investigating officer (IO) has access to a dedicated device compatible with the e-Sakshya app. Providing sufficient tablets or mobile phones with the required specifications will help officers capture evidence reliably and eliminate the need for using personal devices.
    • Enable direct court access to digital evidence: Courts must be integrated with the Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS) to allow secure, real-time access to evidence stored on the National Government Cloud. This will eliminate dependency on external storage like pen drives and promote efficiency and authenticity in judicial proceedings.

  • Revisit digital search powers under the I-T Bill 2025 

    Why in the News?

    The proposed changes in the Income-Tax Bill, 2025 allowing tax officials to access a person’s “virtual digital space” during search and seizure have sparked strong debate about privacy, government surveillance, and misuse of power.

    What is the current legal framework for tax-related search and seizure?

    • Under Section 132 of the Income-Tax Act, 1961, search and seizure powers are currently restricted to physical spaces like houses, offices, and lockers.
    • These powers are exercised based on a reasonable suspicion of undisclosed income or assets, and apply only to the person under investigation.

    What does the new proposal change?

    • Expansion to digital realm: The new proposal includes access to emails, cloud storage, social media accounts, digital applications, and vaguely “any other space of similar nature.”
    • Override of access barriers: Authorities can override access codes of devices to enter these digital spaces.
    • Open-ended scope: The vague phrasing leaves room for nearly any digital platform to fall under scrutiny, exposing data beyond the individual concerned.

    What are the privacy risks of allowing tax access to digital spaces?

    • Deep intrusion into personal life: Digital spaces like emails, social media, and cloud drives contain private, non-financial information. Their access exposes not just the individual but also their family, friends, and professional networks.
    • Risk to confidentiality: Professionals like journalists and lawyers could have confidential sources and sensitive data compromised, affecting freedom of expression and legal rights.
    • Lack of oversight: The provision allows tax authorities to bypass judicial warrants, violating principles of transparency, accountability, and privacy.

    What is the Proportionality Principle?

    Proportionality Principle is a legal doctrine that ensures any action taken by the State—especially those that limit fundamental rights—must be reasonable, necessary, and least restrictive in achieving a legitimate aim.

    How does the proposal violate the proportionality principle?

    • Absence of judicial safeguards: The proposal allows tax authorities to access an individual’s digital data without prior judicial approval or warrant. In contrast, the U.S. Supreme Court in Riley vs California mandated warrants before accessing digital content due to the sensitive nature of personal data.
    • No relevance filter for accessed data: The provision lacks a clear distinction between financial and non-financial data, enabling authorities to access personal content unrelated to tax evasion. For instance, a journalist’s device could reveal confidential sources and communications, compromising press freedom.
    • Fails the least intrusive means test: The measure does not explore less invasive options to meet enforcement goals and grants sweeping powers without ensuring necessity. The Supreme Court in the Puttaswamy case clearly stated that any restriction on privacy must be necessary and adopt the least intrusive method.

    Which global safeguards can India adopt for digital searches?

    • Judicial Authorization Before Search: In Canada, Section 8 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms mandates that searches (including digital) must be pre-approved by a neutral and impartial judge, based on reasonable and probable grounds. This ensures accountability and protects citizens from arbitrary intrusions.
    • Warrant Requirement for Digital Devices: In the United States, the Supreme Court ruling in Riley v. California (2014) held that law enforcement must obtain a warrant before accessing data on cell phones, given the deeply personal nature of digital information. This aligns digital privacy with Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches.
    • Taxpayer Bill of Rights: The U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) enforces the Taxpayer Bill of Rights, which guarantees that searches are not more intrusive than necessary and are conducted with due process. It emphasizes that digital investigations must follow legal safeguards, respecting taxpayer privacy.

    Way forward: 

    • Mandate Judicial Oversight and Clear Warrants: Any access to an individual’s digital space must require prior approval from a neutral judicial authority, based on tangible evidence and specific relevance to the tax investigation.
    • Define ‘Virtual Digital Space’ Narrowly and Precisely: The term should be clearly limited to platforms directly linked to financial transactions, excluding unrelated personal data, to prevent excessive intrusion and ensure proportionality.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.

    Linkage: This question directly addresses the fundamental right to privacy, which is the central concern raised by the proposed digital search powers in the Income-Tax Bill, 2025. The article explicitly states that the Bill “raises significant concerns about privacy, overreach, and surveillance” and emphasizes that “The right to privacy cannot and must not be eroded under the garb of regulatory action”.

  • [28th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed:  A China-led trilateral nexus as India’s new challenge

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2017] ‘China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbor.

    Linkage: It focuses on how China uses its economic power to gain strategic and military advantages, and how this affects India, its neighbor. The article show that Pakistan heavily depends on China for money, support, and infrastructure. With China’s backing, Pakistan could pose new terrorism and security threats to India.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  China recently held a three-country meeting with Pakistan and Bangladesh in Kunming, soon after a similar one with Pakistan and Afghanistan. These talks show that China is trying to increase its influence in South Asia by bringing India’s neighbours closer, especially as India’s ties with Bangladesh are tense and India is becoming more active in Afghanistan. This reminds us of Cold War-style strategies, where countries tried to surround rivals. As India takes strong action against terrorism and defends its regional interests, China’s new meetings seem to show not just strategy, but also nervousness about India’s growing power.

    Today’s editorial talks about the recent meeting between China, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. This topic is important for GS Paper II (International Relations) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Last week, China, Pakistan, and Bangladesh met together for the first time in a three-country meeting held in Kunming, China.

    What are China’s goals behind trilateral talks with Pakistan and others?

    • Expand Regional Influence: China aims to increase its geopolitical footprint in South Asia by leading trilateral forums.
    • Contain India’s Rise: Trilateral talks help China keep India distracted by regional tensions, limiting its strategic outreach and diplomatic bandwidth. Eg: China’s coordination with Pakistan and Afghanistan shortly after India’s Operation Sindoor aimed to show Pakistan as a regional stakeholder and challenge India’s dominance.
    • Promote BRI and Economic Interests: By drawing countries like Afghanistan and Bangladesh closer, China seeks to push its Belt and Road Initiative and related infrastructure investments. Eg: Discussions with Afghanistan have included extending the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) through Afghan territory.

    Why is China increasing regional engagement amid India’s rise?

    • To Counter India’s Strategic Clout: As India grows economically and diplomatically, China seeks to undermine its influence in neighbouring countries. Eg: China’s trilateral with Pakistan and Bangladesh followed India’s strengthening ties with Afghanistan and regional powers.
    • To Exploit Shifting Political Landscapes: China is leveraging regime changes in countries like Afghanistan and Bangladesh to draw them closer into its orbit. Eg: After the regime change in Bangladesh (2024), China intensified efforts to engage Dhaka through trilaterals.
    • To Protect and Expand Economic Interests: Rising Indian assertiveness challenges China’s economic initiatives, especially BRI projects. Regional engagement helps safeguard these investments. Eg: China wants to extend the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) into Afghanistan to secure trade routes and regional access.

    How does the China-Pakistan nexus affect India’s security strategy?

    • Increased Two-Front Security Threat: The China-Pakistan partnership forces India to prepare for simultaneous threats on both western and northern borders, complicating military planning. Eg: During Operation Sindoor (2025), Pakistan used Chinese-made drones, radars, and fighter jets, requiring India to recalibrate its defence posture.
    • Diplomatic Isolation Attempts: China often backs Pakistan at global platforms, shielding it from international scrutiny, especially on terror-related matters. Eg: China blocked UN resolutions targeting Pakistan-sponsored terrorists, limiting India’s global counterterrorism diplomacy.
    • Regional Instability via Trilateral Engagements: China promotes trilateral meetings involving Pakistan and India’s neighbours to sideline New Delhi and create regional pressure points. Eg: The China-Pakistan-Bangladesh trilateral aims to undermine India’s influence in South Asia and divert attention from long-term strategic goals.

    What are the developments that show India countering China’s regional influence?

    • Assertive Military and Diplomatic Response: India has adopted a proactive approach to respond to security threats and Chinese intrusions. Eg: In response to the Pahalgam terror attack, India launched Operation Sindoor (2025) and suspended the Indus Waters Treaty, restricted port access, and took military action, signalling firm redlines.
    • Strengthening Ties with Neighbours: India is engaging constructively with its neighbours to limit Chinese outreach and reinforce strategic trust. Eg: Despite past tensions, India supported Nepal’s energy cooperation with Bangladesh and re-engaged with Maldives and Sri Lanka, reinforcing regional goodwill.
    • Coalition Building with Like-Minded Nations: India is enhancing cooperation with democratic allies to counterbalance China’s strategic footprint in South Asia. Eg: India has deepened ties through platforms like QUAD, and built defence and intelligence partnerships with countries like the U.S., Japan, and Australia, strengthening its regional deterrence.

    Who among the neighbours are shifting towards China?

    • Pakistan: Deeply aligned with China for military, economic, and diplomatic support. Eg: Over $29 billion in loans, and 80% of arms imports from China.
    • Bangladesh: After the 2024 regime change, it has shown increasing economic and political engagement with China. Eg: Joined trilateral talks with China and Pakistan, indicating a shift despite India’s past close ties.
    • Afghanistan: Shifted closer to China-Pakistan axis after the Taliban takeover (2021) and again after 2024 regime changes.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Strategic Partnerships in South Asia: India should build stronger bilateral ties with its neighbors through infrastructure support, trade cooperation, and regional connectivity projects. Strengthening initiatives like BIMSTEC and Act East Policy can counterbalance China’s influence.
    • Assert Regional Leadership Through Security and Diplomacy: India must continue to lead anti-terror cooperation, defend regional sovereignty, and set clear redlines for any hostile alignments. At the same time, it should promote inclusive regional forums that prioritize peace and mutual development.

  • No time to rest: India did well in climbing up SDG Rankings, but falls short in governance

    Why in the News?

    India has entered the top 100 in the Sustainable Development Report (2025), ranking 99th out of 167 countries, according to the UN-backed Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN). This shows a clear improvement from its 110th position in 2016, marking a notable step forward.

    What does India’s SDG ranking improvement show?

    • India moved into the top 100 of the Sustainable Development Report for the first time since 2016, reaching rank 99 out of 167 countries.
    • The improvement reflects progress in poverty reduction (SDG 1), infrastructure (SDG 9), electricity access (SDG 7), and digital inclusion.

    Why is Zero Hunger still a challenge for India?

    • Persistent Child Malnutrition: A significant portion of Indian children still suffer from undernutrition. Eg: As per NFHS-5 (2019–21), 35.5% of children under five were stunted, only slightly better than 38.4% in NFHS-4 (2015–16).
    • Widening Dietary Disparities: Access to a nutritious diet remains unequal across income and geographic lines. Eg: Rural and low-income households often rely on calorie-dense than nutrient-poor food, while wealthier urban populations have better diet diversity.
    • Rising Dual Burden of Malnutrition: India is witnessing a simultaneous increase in obesity and undernutrition. Eg: Between 2006 and 2021, obesity among adults aged 15–49 almost doubled, especially in urban areas, showing nutritional imbalance.

    Which SDG areas show strong and weak performance?

    Strong Performance:

    • SDG 1 – No Poverty: Significant progress in reducing poverty levels. Eg: Poverty rate declined from 22% in 2012 (NSSO) to about 12% in 2023 (World Bank).
    • SDG 7 – Affordable and Clean Energy: Near-universal household electrification and renewable energy expansion. Eg: India is the 4th largest in renewable energy capacity (solar and wind).
    • SDG 9 – Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure: Rapid growth in digital connectivity and financial inclusion. Eg: UPI-driven digital payment infrastructure and mobile network penetration.

    Weak Performance:

    • SDG 2 – Zero Hunger: High levels of malnutrition and dietary inequality persist. Eg: 35.5% of children under five are stunted (NFHS-5, 2019–21).
    • SDG 4 – Quality Education: Uneven access to education and digital learning across regions. Eg: COVID-19 widened learning gaps between rural and urban students.
    • SDG 16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions: Challenges in governance, rule of law, and press freedom. Eg: India ranks low in global indices measuring institutional strength.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • POSHAN Abhiyaan: Launched to reduce malnutrition, stunting, and anemia among children and womenthrough better nutrition and health services. It supports SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being.
    • Digital India and UPI Initiatives: Aimed at increasing digital access, financial inclusion, and service delivery, especially in rural and remote areas. It supports SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure and SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities.
    • PM-KUSUM and Solar Missions: Promote renewable energy and sustainable farming by enabling farmers to adopt solar-powered pumps and panels. It supports SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy and SDG 13: Climate Action.

    How can India improve in governance-related SDGs? (Way forward)

    • Strengthen Institutional Transparency and Accountability: Ensure timely delivery of justice, reduce corruption, and make public institutions more responsive. Eg: Implementing police and judicial reforms, and enhancing public grievance redressal mechanisms.
    • Promote Press Freedom and Civic Participation: Safeguard freedom of expression, support independent media, and encourage public engagement in policymaking. Eg: Enforcing laws that protect journalists and fostering platforms for inclusive civic dialogue.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2021] What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India?

    Linkage: This focuses on the main goal of ending hunger and malnutrition, which is the heart of Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger). The article says that SDG 2 is still a major concern in India, even though there has been progress in other areas. So, it’s important to examine how well policies like the National Food Security Act are working.

  • Practicing equality in constitutional courts 

    Why in the News?

    On May 13, 2025, the Supreme Court gave a key judgment revisiting earlier cases on senior lawyer designation. Though overlooked as an internal court issue, it raised concerns about inequality in the legal profession, elitism, and the fairness of classifying lawyers under Section 16 of the Advocates Act, 1961.

    What are the legal issues with the senior advocate designation?

    • Arbitrary Classification under Section 16 of the Advocates Act, 1961: Section 16 allows courts to classify lawyers into “senior advocates” and others based on vague terms like “ability” or “standing at the Bar”, which lack objective benchmarks. It has been challenged as violative of Article 14 (Right to Equality) of the Constitution because it creates unequal treatment among equals without a clear rationale.
    • Lack of Objective Selection Process in Court Rules: The Supreme Court Rules, 2013 prescribe procedures for designation but allow subjective discretion, enabling possible favouritism or bias. Eg: Rule 2 of Order IV of the Supreme Court Rules allows for pre-audience to senior advocates, reinforcing hierarchical privilege without transparency in how they are chosen.
    • Undermines Egalitarian Access to Justice: Designation often leads to a concentration of influence among a few, marginalising others and affecting diversity in courtroom representation. Eg: In Indira Jaising v. Supreme Court of India (2017), the Court upheld the validity of Section 16 but did not address how it leads to systemic exclusion, especially of women and underprivileged lawyers, conflicting with constitutional ideals of equality and non-discrimination.

    Why is the 2025 Jitender judgment seen as inadequate?

    • Did Not Address Constitutional Validity of Section 16: The 2025 judgment failed to examine the constitutional validity of Section 16 of the Advocates Act, 1961, which creates a classification between senior advocates and other advocates. The Court did not refer the matter to a larger Bench for a deeper constitutional review. The classification was upheld without addressing whether it was arbitrary or led to inequality in the legal profession.
    • Acknowledged Subjectivity but Retained Flawed Process: The Court admitted that the point-based assessment system used to designate senior advocates is “highly subjective”, yet it retained the application-based process. This allows judges’ discretion to continue dominating the selection process, opening space for favoritism and elite networks. Eg: Many competent lawyers are left out simply because they lack access to the corridors of power.
    • Missed Opportunity to Promote Inclusiveness and Reform: Instead of proposing systemic change, the Court left it to High Courts to frame rules, without tackling the core issue of representation. The process continues to exclude women, Dalits, and those from less privileged backgrounds, reinforcing elitism in the judiciary. Eg: The designation process continues to favour a “creamy layer” of elite lawyers, limiting judicial diversity.

    What are the factors fueling inequality in the legal profession?

    • Unequal Access to Quality Legal Education: Aspiring lawyers from rural or low-income backgrounds often lack access to top law schools due to language barriers, lack of coaching, or high costs. Eg: Students from remote areas rarely make it to National Law Universities, which limits their exposure and opportunities.
    • Urban Concentration of Legal Opportunities: Legal practice in metropolitan cities attracts more recognition, clients, and judicial exposure compared to small-town lawyers. Eg: Talented advocates in lower courts of Bihar or Odisha are often overlooked for high-profile cases or designations.
    • Subjectivity in Senior Advocate Designation: The selection process often favours those with elite networks or familiarity with judges, sidelining equally competent but lesser-known lawyers. Eg: Women and Dalit lawyers remain significantly underrepresented among senior advocates.

    Way forward: 

    • Transparent and Inclusive Designation Process: Develop a merit-based, transparent system for designating senior advocates with clear evaluation criteria. Include diverse representation (e.g., women, marginalized groups) in selection committees to promote judicial inclusiveness.
    • Strengthening Legal Education and Access: Expand access to quality legal education through scholarships, regional law schools, and skill-based training in vernacular languages, especially for students from rural and underprivileged backgrounds to reduce structural entry barriers.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2014] Starting from inventing the ‘basic structure’ doctrine, the judiciary has played a highly proactive role in ensuring that India develops into a thriving democracy. In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by judicial activism in achieving the ideals of democracy.

    Linkage: This question prompts an evaluation of the judiciary’s role in achieving “ideals of democracy”. The article talks about the direct counter-narrative to this positive assertion by arguing that the classification of senior advocates, as upheld by Supreme Court judgments in Indira Jaising and Jitender, creates a “legal oligarchy” and perpetuates inequality that can damage the justice delivery system enormously.

  • India to alter Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh

    Why in the News?

    India is preparing to reassess and renegotiate the Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh, which is set to expire in 2026, completing its 30-year term.

    About the Ganga Water Agreement (1996):

    • Signing: It was signed on December 12, 1996, by PM H. D. Deve Gowda (India) and PM Sheikh Hasina (Bangladesh) to share the Ganga’s dry season flow.
    • Purpose: It aimed to ensure water availability for irrigation, ecology, and navigation in both countries, especially at the Farakka Barrage, which diverts water to sustain the Kolkata Port.
    • Duration: It replaced earlier short-term deals and set a 30-year framework (1996–2026), with a renewal clause by mutual consent.

    Key Terms of the Agreement:

    • Lean Season Period: The treaty applies from January 1 to May 31, with water sharing calculated in 10-day intervals.
    • Sharing Formula at Farakka:
      • ≤ 70,000 cusecs: 50% each
      • 70,000–75,000 cusecs: India gets the remainder after Bangladesh gets 35,000
      • ≥ 75,000 cusecs: India gets 40,000; Bangladesh gets the balance
    • Alternate Sharing: From March 11 to May 10, both countries receive 35,000 cusecs alternately every three 10-day blocks.
    • No Minimum Guarantee: If flow falls below 50,000 cusecs, Article II allows for consultations and emergency adjustments.
    • Monitoring Mechanism: The Joint Rivers Commission (JRC) ensures implementation and dispute resolution.
    • Project Provisions: Both countries may construct water projects for irrigation and navigation.

    Why must India reconsider it?  

    • Treaty Expiry: The treaty ends in 2026, and India wants a revised pact to reflect current demands.
    • Rising Needs: India seeks an additional 30,000–35,000 cusecs due to:
      • Increased irrigation in West Bengal and other states
      • Siltation issues at Kolkata Port
      • Urban and industrial growth
    • Flexibility Concerns: Officials argue the treaty lacks provisions for climate variability and seasonal shortages.
    • State Support: West Bengal supports changes, citing inadequate current allocations.
    • Proposed Change: India may pursue a shorter, more flexible treaty, like its move on the Indus Waters Treaty with Pakistan.

    Implications for Bangladesh:

    • Downstream Vulnerability: Bangladesh faces greater risk from reduced water flow.
    • Historical Shortfalls: Between 1997 and 2016, Bangladesh received less than its share 65% of the time.
    • Potential Consequences:
      • Increased salinity in rivers and farmland
      • Reduced water for fisheries, irrigation, and drinking
      • Navigation issues in the delta
    • Political Sensitivity: Many in Bangladesh already view the treaty as unfair, and further reduction may trigger domestic backlash.
    • Diplomatic Impact: A poorly negotiated outcome could strain India-Bangladesh ties, especially in water diplomacy and cross-border trust.
    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Baglihar Power Project had been constructed within the parameters of the Indus Water Treaty.

    2. The project was completely built by the Union Government with loans from Japan and the World Bank. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • ‘Socialist’ and ‘Secular’ Words in Preamble

    Why in the News?

    A far-right leader has called for a public debate on the terms “socialist” and “secular” in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution, arguing they were added undemocratically during the Emergency via the 42nd Amendment and now require re-evaluation.

    About the Preamble:

    • Overview: It is the introductory statement to the Constitution of India. It sets out the philosophy, vision, and objectives of the Constitution.
    • Origin: It is based on the Objectives Resolution introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946, and adopted by the Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947.
    • Declaration made: It declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and seeks to secure to all citizens:
      Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), Equality (of status and opportunity), and Fraternity (assuring dignity and national unity).
    • Significance: It serves as a guiding light for interpreting the Constitution. N.A. Palkhivala called it the “Identity Card of the Constitution”, while K.M. Munshi described it as the “Political Horoscope” of India.
    • Key symbolism associated:
      1. Source of Authority – We, the People of India emphasizes that power originates from the people.
      2. Nature of Indian State – India is described as Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic.

    Preamble

    Amendments to the Preamble:

    • Can the Preamble be amended: Yes, the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) held that the Preamble is part of the Constitution and can be amended, provided the Basic Structure Doctrine is not violated.
    • The Preamble has been amended only once in the history of the Constitution.
    • 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976:
      • Passed during the Emergency (1975-77) under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
      • Based on the recommendations of the Sardar Swaran Singh Committee.
    • Three words were added:
      • “Socialist” and “Secular” – inserted between “Sovereign” and “Democratic”.
      • “Integrity” – added to the phrase “Unity of the Nation” → changed to “Unity and Integrity of the Nation”.

    Why was it controversial?

    • It was passed during the Emergency, a time of suppressed democratic processes and curbed civil liberties.
    • Critics argue that the words were politically motivated and not part of the original constitutional vision.
    • Proponents argue that these values were already implicitly present in the Constitution, and the amendment merely made them explicit.

    Preamble as an integral part of the Constitution: Key Judgments

    • Berubari Union Case (1960):
      • The Supreme Court initially held that the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution.
      • It could be used to interpret ambiguous provisions but had no independent legal standing.
    • Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): The Court overruled the earlier view and held that:
      • The Preamble is a part of the Constitution.
      • It reflects the basic structure and essential philosophy of the Constitution.
      • However, it cannot be used to override specific provisions of the Constitution.
    • LIC of India Case (1995):
      • The Court reaffirmed that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.
      • But it is not enforceable in a court of law—i.e., one cannot file a case solely based on a violation of the Preamble.
    [UPSC 2020] The Preamble to the Constitution of India is:

    Options: (a) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect (b) not a part of the Constitution and has no legal effect either (c) part of the Constitution and has the same legal effect as any other part (d) a part of the Constitution but has no legal effect independently of other parts

    [UPSC 2016] Discuss each adjective attached to the word ‘Republic’ in the preamble. Are they defendable in the present circumstances stances? 

     

  • International Day against Drug Abuse

    Why in the News?

    June 26 is observed globally as the International Day Against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking, also known as World Drug Day.

    About the International Day Against Drug Abuse:

    • It is observed annually on June 26, following a declaration by the UN General Assembly on December 7, 1987.
    • The theme for 2025, “Break the Cycle. #StopOrganizedCrime,” highlights the need for tackling organized crime networks linked to drug trafficking and calls for long-term investment in justice, education, health care, and alternative livelihoods.
    • Events are held worldwide to raise awareness about the social, health, and legal impacts of drug abuse, with active participation from governments, NGOs, and citizens.
    • In India, efforts like the Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan reflect the government’s zero-tolerance policy and people-centric approach to preventing drug addiction and trafficking.

    Key Highlights of the UNODC World Drug Report (2024-2025):

    • The latest World Drug Report by UNODC reveals that 292 million people globally were using drugs by 2022, marking a 20% increase in the last decade.
    • The report notes a worrying expansion of synthetic drug markets, especially methamphetamine and fentanyl-type opioids, and links them to organised crime groups.
    • It calls attention to youth vulnerability, mental health correlations, and gaps in treatment access, especially in low-income countries.

    Back2Basics: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

    • Overview: It was established in 1997 through the merger of the United Nations Drug Control Programme and the Centre for International Crime Prevention.
    • UN agency: It helps in tackling illicit drugs, organised crime, corruption, and terrorism.
    • Headquarters: It is located in Vienna, Austria.
    • Its core functions include:
      • Educating global populations about the dangers of drug abuse.
      • Assisting countries in ratifying and implementing international drug control treaties.
      • Strengthening criminal justice systems to promote the rule of law.
      • Supporting crime prevention, anti-corruption efforts, and terrorism prevention through technical and legal assistance.
    • Funding Mechanism: UNODC is voluntarily funded, mainly by governments, and works with partners worldwide to promote stable, secure, and just societies.

     

    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:

    1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft

    2. Monitoring of precipitation

    3. Tracking the migration of animals

    In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) (c) All three (d) None