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GS Paper: GS2

  • Will local job quotas pass the legal test?    

    Why in the News? 

    The Karnataka State Employment Bill, 2024, proposing private sector reservations for Kannadigas, is on hold after backlash from business and industry leaders.

    What Does the Constitution Say?

    • Equality of Opportunity (Article 16):
      • Article 16(1): Guarantees equality of opportunity in public employment and prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, or residence.
      • Article 16(3): Allows Parliament to prescribe residence requirements for public office in a specific state or Union Territory, but this power does not extend to state legislatures.
    • Freedom of Movement and Residence (Article 19):
      • Article 19(1)(d): Ensures the freedom of movement throughout India.
      • Article 19(1)(e): Grants the right to reside and settle in any part of India.
      • Article 19(1)(g): Protects the right to practice any profession or carry on any occupation, trade, or business.
    • Legislative Powers (Article 35):
      • Article 35(a): Designates Parliament as the sole authority to make laws concerning residence requirements for employment or appointments to public offices, thereby restricting state legislatures from enacting such laws.

    Why Is the constitutionality of the Karnataka State Employment of local candidates in the Industries, factories and Other Establishments Bill, 2024, being doubted?

    • Absence of Provision for Private Sector Reservation: The Constitution does not provide for reservation in the private sector, leading to concerns about the legality of such mandates at the state level.
    • Legislative limits on residential criteria: State Assemblies lack the power to prescribe residential criteria for private sector employment, as such powers are reserved for Parliament under Article 35(a).
    • Impact on Fundamental Rights:
      • The Bill may infringe on citizens’ rights under Article 19(1)(d) and (e), restricting their freedom of movement and right to reside or settle in different states.
      • The quota system might violate Article 19(1)(g), impinging on individuals’ freedom to pursue occupations of their choice.

    What Is the Status of Similar Laws in Other States Such as Haryana?

    • Haryana State Employment of Local Candidates Act, 2020: Mandated 75% reservation in the private sector for jobs with salaries up to ₹30,000. This Act was struck down by the Punjab and Haryana High Court, and the matter is pending before the Supreme Court.
    • Andhra Pradesh Employment of Local Candidates in Industries/Factories Act, 2019: Proposed 75% reservation for local candidates and allowed a three-year period for training and engagement. This Act has faced legal challenges and has not been zealously implemented by the government.
    • Jharkhand Definition of Local Persons Bill: Initially faced resistance from the Governor over its constitutionality, especially regarding 100% reservation for locals in certain job categories. The bill was re-enacted in December 2023 despite concerns about its constitutionality.

    Way forward: 

    • Inclusive Dialogue: The Karnataka government should engage in comprehensive consultations with all stakeholders, including industry representatives, legal experts, and civil society, to understand their concerns and suggestions.
    • Impact Analysis: Need to conduct a detailed socio-economic impact assessment of the proposed reservation policy can provide insights into its potential benefits and drawbacks.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment. (2019)

  • On the student protests in Bangladesh    

    Why in the News? 

    At least 130 people have died in clashes during student protests over government job quotas in Bangladesh.

    Why have students in Bangladesh taken to the streets?

    • Opposition to Quota System: Students are protesting against the quota system for government jobs, specifically the 30% reserved for freedom fighters and their descendants, which they believe limits merit-based opportunities.
    • Reversal of Quota Reforms: The protests intensified after the Supreme Court restored the quota system, reversing the previous decision to abolish it. Students demand a more balanced and inclusive quota system.

    Why Is the 30% quota for Freedom fighters and their descendants an emotive matter for the Awami League?

    • Legacy of Sheikh Mujib: The quota system was introduced by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and continuing it is seen as fulfilling his legacy and honouring the sacrifices of freedom fighters.
    • Political Significance: The Awami League views the quota as a means to reinforce support within the bureaucracy and maintain political loyalty, linking it closely to the party’s historical and ideological narrative.

    How did the protests turn violent?

    • The violence escalated when Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina labeled protesters as “razakars” or traitors, which enraged students and led to violent clashes with the police and Rapid Action Battalion (RAB).
    • The situation deteriorated to the point where the military had to be deployed to control the unrest, further intensifying the violence and confrontation between protesters and authorities.

    Have the Quotas Been Misused?

    • Allegations of Abuse: There have been claims that the quota system has been misused, with reservations extended to party operatives and not just deserving freedom fighters’ descendants.
    • Dilution and Extension: The quota system, initially meant for freedom fighters and war survivors, has been criticized for being extended to broader categories over time, leading to concerns about fairness and effective utilization.

    India’s recent Initiatives – ‘Strengthening Ties and Empowering Governance’

    • Economic Cooperation: India and Bangladesh agreed to strengthen trade and investment linkages, including the early commencement of negotiations for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
    • Capacity Building for Civil Servants: India has been providing training and capacity-building programs for Bangladeshi civil servants through the National Centre for Good Governance (NCGG).
    • Development Assistance: India is the largest development partner for Bangladesh, having extended approximately $8 billion in Lines of Credit (LOC) over the past eight years for infrastructure development in sectors such as roads, railways, and shipping.

    Way forward: 

    • Balanced Approach: The Bangladesh government should consider a transparent and balanced quota reform that addresses both merit-based and reservation needs.
    • Monitoring and Accountability: Establishing mechanisms to monitor the implementation of quotas and prevent misuse is crucial.

  • The importance of both Quad and BRICS  

    Why in the News? 

    Recently, the Quad Foreign Ministers’ meeting in Japan highlighted the UNSC’s paralysis, ongoing violations of international law, and the growing influence of China and an axis of Russia, China, North Korea, and Iran.

    Present State of the UNSC:

    • Paralysis and Ineffectiveness: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is currently paralyzed, unable to effectively address or resolve significant global conflicts. Efforts to reform the UNSC have stalled, leaving it incapable of adapting to contemporary geopolitical realities.
    • Impunity in Violations of International Law: International law is being violated with impunity in conflicts such as the Ukraine war and the assault on Gaza by Israel.
      • The UNSC’s inability to act decisively has contributed to a growing disregard for its authority and mandates.

    Role of India in QUAD:

    • Strategic Partnership: India’s involvement in QUAD enhances its strategic partnerships with the other member nations, allowing for collaborative efforts in maritime security, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations.
    • Building Indo-In Pacific Policy: One of the primary objectives of QUAD is to mitigate China’s assertive actions in Indo Pacific region.
      • India is positioned to take on a leadership role in regional security.
    • Economic Collaboration: The QUAD nations are working towards strengthening economic ties, including infrastructure development at ‘Strait of Malacca’  and alternative financing options for Indo-Pacific countries.
    • Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief: India has actively engaged in humanitarian efforts, exemplified by its Operation Sanjeevani, which provided medical assistance to several Indo-Pacific nations during the COVID-19 pandemic.

    Silverlining on BRICS

    • Promoting South-South Cooperation: BRICS represents a significant non-Western global initiative in the post-Cold War era. It can bring together major emerging economies from different parts of the world.
    • Amplifying Voices in Global Governance: The BRICS Population is around 40% of the world so the BRICS nations can amplify their voices in global governance and expand their choices of international partners through this grouping.
    • Fostering Economic Resilience: Despite the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, BRICS has emerged as a more effective and efficient institution in fostering economic resilience among its member nations.
    • Exploring Alternative Financial Mechanisms: BRICS has taken steps to establish alternative financial mechanisms, such as the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA).
      • Role BRICS group in G20: The BRICS group has consistently pushed for the inclusion of development issues in the G20 agenda. They argue that the G20 should prioritize the needs of developing countries, particularly in terms of infrastructure investment and social sector support
    • Promoting Sustainable Development: The BRICS nations have emphasized the importance of responsible financing for green and sustainable development.
    • Initiatives like the NDB’s focus on sustainable infrastructure projects which would help in achieving of SDG Goal 9.

    Conclusion: Need to support and advocate for comprehensive reforms of the UNSC to address its paralysis and enhance its effectiveness. This includes expanding permanent membership to better represent contemporary global dynamics and improving decision-making processes to tackle conflicts with greater agility.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (2020)

  • What is the International Centre for Audit of Local Governance?  

    Why in the news? 

    On July 18, CAG Girish Chandra Murmu inaugurated the International Centre for Audit of Local Governance (iCAL) in Rajkot, marking India’s first institute to set global standards for auditing local governance.

    How will iCAL work?

    • iCAL will serve as a platform for policymakers, administrators, and auditors connected with local governments to enhance collaboration and share best practices.
    • Objective: It aims to improve the independence and effectiveness of local government auditors through training, leadership development, and capacity-building initiatives.
    • Significance: iCAL will act as a think tank for addressing governance issues at the grassroots level through interactive workshops, knowledge-sharing sessions, and peer exchanges.

    How are local bodies audited in India?

    • India has a three-tier system consisting of the Union government, state governments, and local bodies (both urban and rural).
    • Local bodies like Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are audited by various entities:
      • State-level offices like the Examiner of Local Fund Accounts (ELFA)/Director of Local Fund Accounts (DLFA) audit the utilisation of state funds by local bodies.
      • CAG conducts audits of all funds at the central and state levels, including those of local bodies. The CAG also advises and supports ELFA/DLFA.

    Why was a need felt for it?

    • Increased Funding and Need for Proper Auditing: With significant funds flowing to local bodies, there is a pressing need for improved auditing practices to ensure proper utilisation and financial management.
    • Global Practices and Collaboration: There is a need to promote global good practices and institutionalised collaboration among supreme audit institutions (SAIs) to enhance local government audit practices and share best practices.
    • Addressing Inefficiencies: Concerns have been raised about inefficiencies in local body financial management and reporting, as highlighted by the Reserve Bank of India’s 2022 report. iCAL aims to address these inefficiencies through better auditing practices and capacity building.

    Way forward: 

    • Expand Capacity Building and Training Programs: Enhance iCAL’s focus on training and capacity-building for auditors and local government officials.
    • Foster International Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing: Strengthen partnerships with global audit institutions and engage in knowledge exchange initiatives.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In the absence of well – educated and organised local-level government systems, Panchayats and Samitis have remained mainly political institutions and not effective instruments of governance. Critically Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • Bombay HC quashes Exemption from RTE Quota for Private Schools  

    Why in the News?

    The Bombay High Court has cancelled the Maharashtra government’s new rule that allowed private schools within 1 kilometer of government or government-aided schools to avoid reserving 25% of their seats for students from weaker sections and disadvantaged groups.

    Right to Education (RTE) Act: Overview

    • The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 ensures free and compulsory education as fundamental right under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.
    • It mandates that every child has the right to full-time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school that meets certain essential norms and standards.
    • Key Provisions:
      • The RTE Act provides for free and compulsory education for all children between 6 and 14 years.
      • Schools must be available within a prescribed distance from the child’s residence to ensure accessibility.
      • The Act ensures the provision of adequate teachers and the establishment of standards for their training and quality.
    • Teacher Qualification: The teacher must pass the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), which is administered by the respective government authority. The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) has established the minimum qualifications required for a person to be eligible for appointment as a teacher for classes I to VIII.
    • The RTE Act does NOT apply to Minority institutions.

    Section 12(1) (C) of the RTE Act:

    • Section 12(1) (C) requires private unaided and specified category schools to reserve at least 25% seats for children from economically weaker sections and disadvantaged groups.
    • This provision aims to promote social inclusion and ensure that children from all backgrounds have access to quality education.
    • The government reimburses schools for the expenses incurred for admitting these children, based on per-child expenditure incurred by the state.
    • Children from economically weaker sections and disadvantaged groups benefit from this Section as it provides them access to private schooling.
    • This section aims to contest education apartheid and bring parity and equality of opportunity for all children.

    Details of the Exemption Rule in Maharashtra

    • The notification stated that private unaided schools within one kilometer of a government or government-aided school would not need to reserve 25% of seats for socio-economically backward students.
    • Students in these areas would first be considered for admission to nearby government or government-aided schools.
    • The exemption also applied to future private schools established within a one-kilometer radius of government or government-aided schools.
    • If no such schools existed in the vicinity, private schools would be identified for RTE admissions.

    Similar Exemptions in Other States

    • Maharashtra joined Karnataka and Kerala in implementing this regime to exempt private schools from RTE admissions.
    • Karnataka introduced the rule in December 2018, referencing Kerala’s rules introduced in 2011.
    • In Kerala, the fee concession is available to RTE quota students only if there are no government or aided schools within one kilometer for Class 1 students.

    Reasons for Introducing Exemptions

    • Karnataka’s Law Minister stated in 2018 that the primary intention of RTE is to provide education to all classes of students.
    • Allowing parents to admit children to private schools despite nearby government schools resulted in a drop in enrollment ratios in government schools.
    • Private schools and teachers’ organizations highlighted that state governments often failed to reimburse fees for students admitted through the RTE quota.
      • Section 12(2) of the RTE Act binds state governments to reimburse expenses incurred by schools per child or the fee amount, whichever is less.
      • In Maharashtra, the Maharashtra English School Trustees Association (MESTA) threatened to boycott RTE admissions last December due to pending reimbursements of Rs 1,800 crore.

    PYQ:

    [2022] The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based systems for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse.

    [2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. As per the right to education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a state, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State council of Teacher education.
    2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.
    3. In India, more than 90 % of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 1 and 3
    (d) 3 only

  • Sighting of Peru’s uncontacted Mashko Piro people

    Why in the News?

    An NGO has released rare photographs of the Mashco Piro tribespeople, one of the world’s 100-odd uncontacted tribes.

    Who are the Mashko Piro people?

    • The Mashco Piro tribe, possibly numbering over 750, are nomadic hunter-gatherers.
    • They live in the Amazon jungles of the Madre de Dios Region, near Peru’s border with Brazil and Bolivia.
    • Almost all uncontacted tribes, including the Mashco Piro, live in the jungles of the Amazon and Southeast Asia.
    • The Mashco-Piro speak a dialect of the Piro language.
    • The tribe is highly reclusive and only occasionally contacts the Yine people, another native group.

    Threats from the logging activities

    • Logging companies has been allotted 53,000 hectares in the Madre de Dios forests to extract cedar and mahogany.
    • The Mashco Piro have expressed their disapproval of the logging companies through the Yine people, reporting feelings of pressure and upset due to company assaults.

    Historical Context:

    • The Mashco Piro’s territory was invaded during Peru’s rubber boom in the 1880s, resulting in displacement, enslavement, and mass killings.
    • Survivors moved further upstream on the Manu River and have lived in isolation since then.

    Protective measures from the Government

    • In 2002, the Peruvian government established the Madre de Dios Territorial Reserve to protect the Mashco Piro’s territory.
    • However, large parts of their traditional lands lie outside the reserve and have been sold as logging concessions.
    • The Peruvian government has forbidden all contact with the Mashco Piro to prevent the spread of diseases to which the tribe has no immunity.
    • As logging companies encroach on their territories, the Mashco Piro have nowhere left to go.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Consider the following pairs:

    Community sometimes in the affairs of mentioned in the news

    1. Kurd : Bangladesh
    2. Madhesi : Nepal
    3. Rohingya : Myanmar

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 3 only
  • [19th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: India and a Case for Strategic Autonomy

    [19th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: India and a Case for Strategic Autonomy

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC IAS/2020)

    Q Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

    Mentor comment: India’s strategic autonomy refers to its ability to pursue national interests and foreign policy without external constraints. This concept has gained renewed significance in the context of a multipolar world, where India seeks to balance relationships with major powers like the U.S. and Russia while navigating regional dynamics, particularly in the Indo-Pacific. However, India’s strategic autonomy is often challenged by external pressures, as seen in its cautious approach to alliances like the Quad and its historical non-alignment stance. The effectiveness of this autonomy remains variable, influenced by geopolitical developments and internal policy decisions

    Let’s learn!

    __

    Why in the news? 

    On July 11, 2024, U.S. Ambassador Garcetti stated, “In times of conflict there is no strategic autonomy,” after PM Modi’s visit to Moscow, highlighting U.S. concerns about India’s stance.

    Current State of India-U.S. Relations:

    • Steady Trajectory with Stress Points: The strategic partnership between India and the U.S. remains steady overall, but stress points have emerged, particularly concerning India’s stance on the Ukraine war.
    • Ukraine War and India’s Neutrality: India maintained its strategic partnership with Russia, expanded energy cooperation, and refused to condemn the invasion, which caused friction with the U.S. and its allies.
    • Western Perception: The West views India’s position as economic support for Russia, widening the stress points in the India-U.S. partnership over the past two and a half years.

    Strategic Autonomy:

    • Strategic autonomy means making decisions that best serve a nation’s interests, free from external pressures. It involves having the conviction, will, and resources to take autonomous decisions.
    • All Indian governments since Independence have followed strategic autonomy, reflected in policies like non-alignment, multi-alignment, and multi-directional foreign policy.

    U.S. Criticism:

    • Ambassador Garcetti’s Comments: He questioned India’s ability to exercise strategic autonomy during crises, suggesting that it becomes meaningless during such times.
    • India’s Response: India asserts its right to take autonomous foreign policy decisions, emphasizing strategic autonomy as a cornerstone of its international relations.

    Historical Evolution of India’s Foreign Policy:

    • Non-Alignment: Initially, India maintained equidistance from both the capitalist and communist blocs, leveraging non-alignment and Asian solidarity to mobilize Third World voices and pursue its interests.
    • Cold War Dynamics: With shifting global alliances, India strengthened ties with the Soviet Union while retaining strategic autonomy.
    • Post-Cold War Era: After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc, India sought greater economic integration and a closer strategic partnership with the West.

    Great power rivalry

    • Multipolar Global Order: The world is transitioning from a unipolar to a multipolar order, with the U.S. maintaining its position as the most powerful country, while China is rising as a strong competitor, and Russia is challenging Western security architecture. 
    • This shift impacts global dynamics, especially in regions like West Asia, where conflicts like the shadow war between Israel and Iran further complicate the power balance.
    • India’s Strategic Autonomy: India aims to maintain its strategic autonomy by balancing relations between great powers without joining any alliance system. 
    • Strategic autonomy is essential for India to navigate the complexities of global power rivalries and pursue its national interests independently.
    • Recasting India-Russia Partnership: Despite Russia’s deepening ties with China, India seeks to recast its historical partnership with Russia into a more equal bilateral relationship.  

    Way Forward: 

    • Strengthening Strategic Partnerships While Ensuring Autonomy: Indian Govt. needs to deepen strategic ties with the U.S. and Europe, emphasising shared values in defense, technology, and economic cooperation while maintaining a robust partnership with Russia. Simultaneously need to ensure these relationships are based on mutual respect and recognition of India’s strategic autonomy, allowing India to independently navigate complex global dynamics.
    • Diversification of Alliances: Govt. should develop and strengthen ties with other emerging powers such as Japan, Australia, and Southeast Asian nations.  
    • Domestic Capability Building: Indian Govt. should focus on self-reliance in critical sectors such as defence, technology, and energy through initiatives like ‘Make in India.’ Reduce dependency on foreign suppliers by investing in domestic manufacturing and innovation.
    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/india-and-a-case-for-strategic-autonomy/article68418840.ece#:~:text=India%20wants%20to%20improve%20the,rooted%20in%20informed%20national%20interest.

  • Places in News: Niger, Ivory Coast and Pacific Island States

    Why in the News?

    Details

    Niger
    • Turkish delegation visited to strengthen military cooperation with the junta, shifting alliances to Turkey and Russia.
    		 Geography: Landlocked in West Africa, bordered by Algeria, Libya, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali. Population ~26.3 million; capital Niamey.

    Key Points:

    • Gained independence from France in 1960.
    • Political instability with coups and a military junta in 2023.
    • It faces significant challenges including desertification, water scarcity, and economic development issues.
    • It is one of the world’s poorest nations despite having large uranium reserves.

    Ivory Coast
    • Recent discoveries have revealed substantial oil reserves estimated at six billion barrels, potentially making Ivory Coast a net oil exporter by the end of the decade.
    • The Baleine field, operated by Eni, aims to reach significant production levels by 2026.
    		 Geography: Located on the southern coast of West Africa; bordered by Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and the Gulf of Guinea. Population ~30.9 million; capital Yamoussoukro.

    Key Points:

    • Gained independence from France in 1960.
    • Experienced political instability, now relatively stable since 2016.
    • Fast-growing economy dependent on cocoa, coffee, and expanding into gold mining and oil refining.
    • Abidjan is a major hub for West African economic activities.

    Pacific Island States
    • Participated in a summit with Japan expressing concerns over military build-ups and the need for regional peace and security.
    • Geography: Vast region in the Pacific Ocean, categorized into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; diverse climates and ecosystems.
    • They face challenges such as climate change impacts, biodiversity loss, and varying levels of development.
    • Economic activities include tourism, agriculture (especially coconut and palm oil), and fishing.
    • These islands play a crucial role in global biodiversity and climate resilience efforts.

     

    PYQ: 

    [2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Region often mentioned in the news: Country

    1. Anatolia: Turkey
    2. Amhara: Ethiopia
    3. Cabo Delgado: Spain
    4. Catalonia: Italy

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    (a) Only one pair

    (b) Only two pairs

    (c) Only three pairs

    (d) All four pairs

    [2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Towns sometimes mentioned in news: Country

    1. Aleppo: Syria

    2. Kirkuk: Yemen

    3. Mosul: Palestine

    4. Mazar-i-Sharif:  Afghanistan

    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 1 and 4

    (c) 2 and3

    (d) 3 and 4

  • On political representation of women  

    Why in the News?

    In the recently concluded general elections in the U.K., a record 263 women MPs, making up 40% of the total, have been elected to the House of Commons.

    Political representation of Women in the world: 

    Have women been fairly represented in Parliament in independent India?

    Women were granted the right to vote from the First General Elections in 1952, yet their representation in the Lok Sabha has been low.

    • Statistics about women’s representation: The women’s representation in Lok sabha in between of  1952 and 2004 was about ranged from 5% to 10%.
      • The percentage women’s representation had increased to 12% in 2014 and stands at 13.6% in the 18th Lok Sabha while in the Rajya Sabha (upper house), the figure is 13%.
    • Constitutional Amendments: The 73rd and 74th amendments in 1992/1993 provided one-third reservation for women in panchayats and municipalities, but similar reservations for the Lok Sabha and State assemblies have not been successful until recently.

    Note: The global average of 26.9% of women in National parliaments.

    Women’s Representation in State Legislatures:

    • No state has more than 20% women representation in its legislative assembly.
    • Chhattisgarh has the highest representation with 18% women MLAs.
    • Himachal Pradesh has just one woman MLA and Mizoram has none.

    Should political parties provide internal reservations to increase women’s political participation?

    • Globally, higher representation for women is achieved through voluntary or legislated compulsory quotas for candidates within political parties or reserved seats in parliament.
    • So, quotas within political parties offer more democratic choices to voters and flexibility in candidate selection. It means quota in Political parties could be the most important step to increase women’s representation in Parliament.
    • Some parties, like Naam Tamilar Katchi in Tamil Nadu, have adopted voluntary quotas (50% for women candidates), but such measures alone have not significantly improved overall representation.

    When will the 106th constitutional amendment be implemented?

    • The 106th Amendment Act provides for 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies, including the Delhi Legislative Assembly.
    • The reservation will come into effect after an exercise of delimitation is undertaken following the first census conducted after the commencement of the 106th Amendment Act.
    • The women’s reservation will be in operation for a period of 15 years from its commencement.

    Way Forward: 

    • Public Awareness and Advocacy: Need to conduct widespread awareness campaigns to highlight the importance of gender equality in political representation.
    • Capacity Building and Support Mechanisms: Need to implement comprehensive capacity-building programs aimed at empowering women politically. For example,provide training in leadership skills, campaign management, and legislative processes.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment. (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • The problems with sub-caste reservations

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has reserved its decision on sub-caste reservations for SC/STs. Any ruling on this matter must be substantiated not only legally but also academically.

    What is the Sub-categorization of castes?

    It refers to the practice of further dividing larger caste categories into smaller groups or sub-groups based on specific criteria such as socio-economic status, geographical location, historical background, or specific needs for policy implementation.

    Background of the Case:

    • The case involves the validity of sub-classification within the SC and ST categories for providing reservations in government jobs and education.
    • In 2004 Supreme Court strikes down Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Castes (Rationalisation of Reservations) Act, 2000, citing violation of the right to equality in the E.V. Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh case and emphasised that the SC list should be treated as a single, homogeneous group
      • Only Parliament has the power to sub-classify SCs and STs for reservations
      • The Supreme Court is now considering whether states have the power to create sub-classifications within these reserved categories.
    • The case stems from a 1975 Punjab government notification that divided its 25% reservation for SCs into two categories: half for Balmikis (Valmikis) and Mazhabi Sikhs, and the other half for the remaining groups within the SC category.

    Objectives behind the implementation of reservations and present SC scenario:

    • Objective of Reservations: The primary objective of reservations, as advocated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, is to ensure equitable representation and opportunities for historically marginalized communities, particularly Scheduled Castes (SCs).
    • Present SC scenario: Despite reservations, certain sub-castes within SCs continue to face challenges in securing adequate representation in jobs and education. This under-representation is often attributed to factors such as inadequate educational opportunities, economic disparities, and historical discrimination.

    The policy of economic empowerment in India and its associated challenges:

    • Policies for Economic Empowerment: These policies complement reservations by focusing on enhancing the ownership of capital assets (like land and businesses) and improving educational attainment among SC individuals
      • For example, Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), National Scheduled Castes Finance & Development Corporation (NSFDC) and National Safai Karamcharis Finance & Development Corporation (NSKFDC).
      • These policies are aimed at building capabilities and enabling greater participation in economic activities.
    • Challenges: There are challenges in implementing economic empowerment policies including inadequate access to credit and financial resources, lack of skill development initiatives, and persistent socio-economic barriers that hinder the upward mobility of SC communities.
      • Intersection with Reservations: Integrating economic empowerment with reservations is crucial to ensure that individuals from SC backgrounds not only secure reserved positions but also have the necessary skills and resources to thrive in competitive environments.

    What must be our focus? (Way Forward)

    • Holistic Approach: There is a need for a holistic approach that combines reservations with targeted economic and educational interventions. This approach should address both systemic discrimination and socio-economic barriers faced by SC communities.
    • Capacity Building: There should be emphasis on enhancing the educational infrastructure and skill development programs tailored to the needs of SC individuals.
    • Data-Driven Policy: The policy decisions related to sub-caste reservations should be informed by empirical data that assesses the actual impact of discrimination versus socio-economic factors on under-representation.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Whether National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) can enforce the implementation of constitutional reservation for the Scheduled Castes in the religious minority institutions? Examine (UPSC IAS/2018)