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GS Paper: GS2

  • Shingles Disease 

    Why in the news?

    A recent large study shows that shingles vaccination can reduce the risk of death from dementia and may help slow disease progression.

    What is Shingles

    • A viral infection characterized by a painful rash
    • Causative agent: Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
      • Same virus responsible for chickenpox
      • Remains latent in nerve cells after recovery from chickenpox
      • Can reactivate later in life

    Transmission

    • Shingles itself is not contagious
    • But the virus can spread to people without prior immunity, causing chickenpox (not shingles)

    Symptoms

    • Cluster of blisters appearing in a band-like pattern on one side of the body (typically torso, neck, or face)
    • Pain, burning, tingling sensation
    • Fever, fatigue, headache
    • Can lead to post-herpetic neuralgia (long-term nerve pain)
    HINI virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases? (2015)

    (a) AIDS 

    (b) Bird flu 

    (c) Dengue 

    (d) Swine flu

  • IndiGo Flight Disruptions and DGCA Temporary FDTL Exemptions

    Why in the news?

    India’s largest airline IndiGo faced severe flight disruptions in early December 2025 due to shortage of flight crew under revised Flight Duty Time Limitation rules, prompting regulatory intervention.

    What is FDTL?

    Rules that regulate pilot duty hours, night operations, number of landings, and mandatory rest periods to manage pilot fatigue and ensure safety.

    New FDTL Norms

    Implemented in two stages:

    1. July 1 — Extended weekly rest for pilots to 48 hours from 36
    2. November 1 — Major changes for night operations
      • Extended definition of night hours
      • Capped night landings to two

    Restricted consecutive night duties to two days a week

    Why IndiGo was hit hardest

    • Very large scale of operations with lean staffing
    • High proportion of night and early morning flights

    Temporary Relief by DGCA (till February 10, 2026)

    • Night defined as midnight to 5 am instead of midnight to 6 am for IndiGo A320 pilots
    • Night landings allowed up to six instead of two
    • Clause restricting substitution of mandatory weekly rest withdrawn
    • 12 DGCA-deputed flight operations inspectors allowed to fly for IndiGo temporarily
    • Exemption reviewed every two weeks with progress report requirements

    UPSC Prelims Pointers

    • DGCA functions: regulatory oversight of civil aviation safety including FDTL norms
    • Pilot fatigue: identified by ICAO as a significant aviation safety hazard
    • IndiGo market share: over 60 percent in domestic aviation

  • [6th December 2025] The Hindu OpED: A growing shadow over digital constitutionalism

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] e-governance is not just about the routine application of digital technology in the service delivery process. It is as much about multifarious interactions for ensuring transparency and accountability. In this context evaluate the role of the ‘Interactive Service Model’ of e-governance.

    Linkage: It links to the article’s focus on transparent, accountable digital systems instead of opaque, surveillance-heavy governance. The Interactive Service Model reflects the need for citizen-centric, rights-based e-governance highlighted in the article.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Digital technologies now shape governance, welfare, and everyday life. But with this convenience comes an unprecedented rise in state and corporate power over personal data. This article analyses the emerging concerns around digital constitutionalism in India. This debate has been triggered by the government’s recent move to mandate the “Sanchar Saathi” app on all mobile devices, an order later rolled back amid public pushback

    Introduction

    India’s digital ecosystem is expanding rapidly, with AI, surveillance systems, and automated governance tools becoming central to state-citizen interaction. While these technologies promise efficiency, they also raise profound constitutional concerns regarding liberty, dignity, privacy, rule of law, accountability, and protection against arbitrary state power. The rollback of the Sanchar Saathi mandate has intensified public scrutiny of the balance between security and rights in the digital age.

    Digital constitutionalism:

    1. It is the application of constitutional principles to the digital age, aiming to adapt and extend protections for rights like privacy and freedom of speech in the online world. 
    2. It involves re-examining how constitutional law operates in an “algorithmic society.” 
    3. Essentially, it’s about reframing constitutionalism to address the unique challenges posed by digital technology, rather than creating a completely new system. 

    Understanding Digital Constitutionalism

    1. Constitutional Principles at Stake: Includes liberty, dignity, equality, accountability, and rule of law in a data-driven world.
    2. Invisible Surveillance Systems: Automated processes like KYC verification, welfare distribution, police databases, and algorithmic decision-making operate with limited transparency.
    3. Risk of Arbitrary Power: Technology enables governance without adequate accountability, transforming everyday life into a monitored ecosystem.

    Why is the Surveillance Infrastructure Expanding?

    1. Growing Cybercrimes: Cyber-offences increased sharply (5.9 lakh to 20.4 lakh), pressuring the state to tighten digital security mechanisms.
    2. Dependence on Private Entities: Telecom, social media, and fintech companies mediate critical citizen services, increasing exposure to opaque data practices.
    3. State-led Technological Governance: Tools like digital ID systems, police databases, and AI-based profiling are becoming integral to governance.

    Efficiency Gains vs Loss of Personal Control

    1. Behavioural Analytics: Hospitals, insurers, schools, and government platforms profile individuals, determining access to services.
    2. Voluntary vs Forced Choice: “Click-through” consent is often unavoidable, reducing privacy to a formal checkbox rather than meaningful choice.
    3. Data-Driven Governance: Decisions affecting rights increasingly rely on opaque algorithms, weakening personal autonomy.

    Surveillance Technologies and Public Life

    1. Digital CCTV & Biometric Systems: Widely deployed across public spaces for administrative efficiency.
    2. Facial Recognition Misuse: Cases abroad show wrongful arrests based on faulty technology; biases against minorities, women, and children documented.
    3. Indian Context: Facial recognition is used frequently without clear legal safeguards; no comprehensive national law limits abuse.

    The Legal System’s Inadequacy

    1. Outdated IT Act, 2000: Not designed for modern surveillance or data-driven governance.
    2. Weak Judicial Enforcement: Privacy guidelines exist but enforcement is inconsistent, making citizens vulnerable.
    3. Delayed Remedies: Courts, tribunals, and oversight bodies do not provide timely relief against digital rights violations.

    Way Forward Rooted in Constitutionalism

    1. Independent Digital Regulator: Needed for adequate oversight on state and private surveillance.
    2. Mandatory Transparency: State and private devices must undergo regular audits.
    3. Limiting Facial Recognition: Clear rules restricting its use; ban for discriminatory or non-essential functions.
    4. Strengthening Rule of Law: Accountability tools, proportionality standards, and judicial review must govern technological deployments.

    Conclusion

    India stands at a crucial crossroads: digital innovation is reshaping governance, but without strong constitutional safeguards, it risks expanding unchecked state and corporate power. Digital constitutionalism must ensure that technology enhances democratic freedoms rather than eroding them. The path forward requires transparent regulation, enforceable rights, and independent institutional oversight to preserve the constitutional promise of dignity, liberty, and equality in the digital era.

     

  • ICGS Vigraha Visit to Indonesia 

    Why in the news?

    Indian Coast Guard Ship (ICGS) Vigraha is on an overseas deployment to ASEAN countries. It is making an operational visit to Jakarta, Indonesia from 2 to 5 December 2025.

    Purpose of Visit

    • Strengthen Coast Guard cooperation between India and Indonesia
     • Enhance interoperability in maritime safety and security
     • Joint professional interactions, shipboard drills, tabletop exercises, PASSEX (Passage Exercise)

    Diplomatic and Operational Significance

    • Reinforces cooperation for Rules-Based International Order (RBIO) in the Indo-Pacific
     • Supports coordinated surveillance of sea lanes and marine domain awareness
     • Includes cultural and people-to-people engagements

    India is a member of which among the following? (2015)

    (1) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 

    (2) Association of South-East Asian Nations 

    (3) East Asia Summit Select the correct answer using the code given below. 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) India is a member of none of them

  • Assam Accord 

    Why in the news?

    The Supreme Court recently questioned whether a new order enabling entry of persecuted minorities into India violates the Assam Accord’s cut-off date of 24 March 1971 for detecting illegal immigrants.

    Background

    • Signed on 15 August 1985
     • Parties: Union of India, Government of Assam, All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad
     • Ended the Assam Movement (1979 to 1985) against illegal immigration
     • Aim: Detect and expel persons entering Assam illegally after 24 March 1971 (midnight)

    Cut-off Dates and Citizenship Provisions

    • 1 January 1966 fixed as the base cut-off for detection and deletion of foreigners
     • Persons entering Assam from the “Specified Territory” before 1 January 1966 deemed Indian citizens
     • Migrants entering from 1 January 1966 to 24 March 1971:
     To be detected as per Foreigners Act 1946 and Foreigners Tribunals Order 1939
     Names deleted from electoral rolls
      Must register under the Registration of Foreigners Act 1939
     Voting rights only after 10 years from date of detection
     • Migrants entering on or after 25 March 1971: To be detected, deleted from rolls, and expelled as per law

    Clause 6

    • Mandates safeguards to protect the cultural, social, and linguistic identity and heritage of the Assamese people
     • Constitutional, legislative, and administrative measures envisaged

    Significance

    • Central to demographic and cultural protection concerns in Assam
     • Continues to influence citizenship policies including NRC and related legal debates

    With reference to India, consider the following statements: (2021)

    1. There is only one citizenship and one domicile. 

    2. A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State. 

    3. A foreigner, once granted citizenship, cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3

  • [5th December 2025] Hindu OpED New Delhi’s relative isolation, India’s tryst with terror

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security. Evaluate the effectiveness of the UNSC’s CTC in mitigating this threat. 

    Linkage: Terror networks operating across borders and using encrypted systems highlight the need for stronger global counter-terror efforts. India’s experience shows why an effective UNSC-CTC is essential to address these evolving threats.

    Mentor’s comment

    India’s security environment is undergoing an unusual and worrying shift. New Delhi, historically a central diplomatic player, now appears relatively isolated even as terror networks expand and geopolitical churn intensifies across South Asia. This note analyses India’s current strategic dilemma, rising hostility from neighbours, deepening terror modules, and a rapidly shifting regional balance.

    Introduction

    India is witnessing a rare strategic moment where its diplomatic influence seems diminished, regional hostility is rising, and terrorism is resurfacing in sophisticated forms. Unlike earlier periods, the current situation combines India’s geopolitical isolation with escalating threats from Pakistan-linked terror networks and a volatile South Asian neighbourhood undergoing political, military, and institutional upheaval. This combination makes the moment distinct and consequential for India’s national security.

    Why in the news

    New Delhi is facing unusual diplomatic isolation, with key regions, West Asia, Europe, and the Indo-Pacific, witnessing shifting power equations that keep India on the sidelines. Simultaneously, South Asia is in deep turmoil: Pakistan’s military changes, Bangladesh’s political shifts, and regional instability are narrowing India’s manoeuvring space. The article highlights a renewed and more complex terror threat, including revived urban terror modules linked to Pakistan and new radicalised networks across Jammu, Kashmir, Delhi, and other regions. This combination of isolation and intensified terror activity marks a serious departure from past patterns, making the situation alarming.

    Why is India facing relative diplomatic isolation today?

    1. ‘Outlier’ perception: India appears more as an outsider than a major power in shaping global order; its role in West Asia, Europe, and the Indo-Pacific remains limited.
    2. Virtual onlooker status: Despite rising global stakes, India is seen as “virtually sitting on the sidelines” in key geopolitical developments.
    3. Contrast with earlier influence: India had never faced such a situation before, making the marginalisation stark.
    4. Limited support system: Even the “entire South Asian region” around India is unstable, reducing India’s traditional influence.

    How is regional hostility from West to East complicating India’s position?

    1. Hostile neighbours: Pakistan and Bangladesh are identified as increasingly unfriendly, particularly Pakistan with rising anti-India rhetoric.
    2. Escalating threat levels: Voices within Pakistan calling India a “proper lesson” intensify cross-border hostility.
    3. Pakistan’s internal changes:
      1. New Defence Services hierarchy: Pakistan created a Chief of Defence Forces and elevated a new army leadership.
      2. Field Marshal-like powers: New structure gives sweeping control over Pakistan’s nuclear assets.
      3. Civil-military power shift: 27th Constitutional Amendment Bill risks undermining democracy further.
    4. Bangladesh’s shift: Tilting towards Pakistan: Recent signals of re-engagement with Pakistan, including naval visits and discussions, create new regional anxieties.
      1. Unfriendly posture: Perceived as acting “unfriendly, if not openly hostile”.

    Why is India’s counter-terror environment becoming more dangerous?

    1. Urban terror revival: After years of decline, urban terrorism is making a comeback across India’s metropolitan centres.
    2. Linkages with Pakistan:
      1. State-backed groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed re-emerging.
      2. Collusion with Pakistani military establishments revived.
    3. Radical infiltration: 
      1. Jammu & Kashmir to Delhi corridor has seen sporadic attacks.
      2. Encrypted channels used to coordinate indoctrination, logistics, and training.
    4. Professionalisation of terror: Doctors, academics, and professionals are increasingly being used for indoctrination and planning.
    5. Reappearance of modules similar to 1993 & 2008: Terror patterns show similarities to the Bombay blasts (1993) and Mumbai attacks (2008).

    What makes the renewed terror threat structurally different from before?

    1. Shift from ideological to professional networks: Radicalisation now mixes religion with professional/academic legitimacy to attract youth.
    2. Use of encrypted technologies: New modules use digital secrecy to avoid detection.
    3. Global linkages: Channels from Pakistan extend to the UAE, Saudi Arabia, UK, and Jordan.
    4. Diverse recruitment base: Includes medical professionals, engineers, and skilled individuals.
    5. Local sleeper cells: Groups with strong roots in Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, and other cities enable quicker mobilisation.

    Why does India’s situation today require careful diplomatic and security manoeuvring?

    1. Volatile neighbourhood: Afghanistan, Nepal, Maldives, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh all face varying turmoil.
    2. Civil-military imbalance in Pakistan: Enhances unpredictability and increases risk of miscalculation.
    3. Potential spillover of instability: Especially from Pakistan and Bangladesh into India’s border regions.
    4. Need for vigilance and caution: High levels of external-internal linkage in terror require sensitive handling.

    Conclusion

    India faces a dual challenge: growing diplomatic isolation and a renewed, sophisticated terror threat emerging from both state-linked and radical networks. The changing regional landscape, marked by political instability, shifting alliances, and Pakistan-Bangladesh recalibrations, makes India’s environment more unpredictable than before. Adapting to this moment requires calibrated diplomacy, heightened security vigilance, and strategic patience to navigate an exceptionally complex geopolitical phase.

     

  • Do we need to change how cities are governed in India?

    Introduction

    The decline of urban civic leadership, seen recently through public debates on mayoral ineffectiveness, has renewed scrutiny of India’s urban governance model. Despite rapid urbanisation, cities continue to be governed through State-controlled mechanisms, with weak municipal autonomy. 

    Why in the news

    The rise of Zohra Mamdani as the youngest City Council Member in New York triggered public debate in India on why similar civic leadership is missing in Indian cities. Against this backdrop, India’s major municipalities, including BMC and Greater Hyderabad, face elections, restructuring, and fragmentation (e.g., BBMP split into five corporations). This moment is significant because it exposes a deeper structural failure: Indian cities lack empowered, democratically elected urban leadership. Despite massive urban populations and complex service demands, Mayors remain invisible, State governments dominate municipal functioning, and the 74th Constitutional Amendment has not delivered genuine decentralisation.

    Article 243-R of the Constitution of India (Composition of Municipalities):

    1. Provides for directly elected members of the municipality.
    2. Leaves it to the State Legislature to decide:
      1. Whether the Chairperson/Mayor is elected directly or indirectly.
      2. Their tenure and mode of election.
    3. Result: States freely choose indirect Mayor elections, leading to weak, ceremonial Mayors and domination of municipal commissioners and State governments

    Why is the Mayor’s position structurally weak in Indian cities?

    1. Centralisation under Chief Minister: The most powerful person in a major city is not the Mayor but the Chief Minister, who controls policing, planning, and key civic institutions.
    2. State-level political dominance: The political system is organised around State Assemblies; municipal issues become secondary to State-level party priorities.
    3. Weak empowerment under the 74th Amendment: Although intended to decentralise authority, the Amendment has delivered limited administrative or fiscal autonomy to municipalities.
    4. Lack of local accountability: Executive authority has not shifted below the State level, leaving Mayors with ceremonial or fragmented powers.

    Why do Mayors remain invisible?

    1. Historical legacy of weak local government: India’s local governance structure developed differently from Western models; constitutional legitimacy for municipalities arrived only with the 74th Amendment.
    2. Incomplete reforms: The 73rd and 74th Amendments created a framework but were not implemented with political sincerity. State governments continue to control finance, planning, and cadre positions.
    3. Political competition between State and cities: State leaders view strong cities as political threats, leading to deliberate dilution of mayoral authority.

    Can greater electoral demands make Mayors more responsive?

    1. Low public demand: Local civic issues do not receive strong public mobilisation. Citizens rarely demand empowered local governance.
    2. State-level political capture: Politicians are adept at mobilising emotions on national or state narratives, overshadowing urban-service concerns.
    3. Limited technocratic leadership space: Bureaucrats and technocrats dominate city administrations; elected Mayors have little room to innovate.

    Why has the 74th Constitutional Amendment failed to transform governance?

    1. Bypassing decentralisation: Key State Acts diluted the Amendment’s intent by retaining control over finances, land, cadres, and statutory bodies.
    2. Lack of political will: States neither formed nor empowered State Finance Commissions adequately. Devolution remains discretionary.
    3. Absence of clear functional domain: Urban functions overlap between parastatals, municipalities, State departments, and centrally sponsored missions, weakening accountability.

    Is financial autonomy necessary for effective urban governance?

    1. Critical need for municipal fiscal strength: Cities handle mobility, sanitation, and climate adaptation, but lack adequate revenue sources.
    2. Low dependence on local taxation: Property tax yields remain low; grants depend on State discretion.
    3. Fragmented budgeting: Legislatures debate budgets but do not integrate municipal priorities into broader fiscal planning.
    4. Need for predictable devolution: Empowered, autonomous municipal finance could drive infrastructure improvement and better urban outcomes.

    Should India rethink its urban political architecture?

    1. Yes, fragmentation and dilution undermine governance: The example of Delhi, where the Chief Minister’s powers overlap with the Union government and the municipal system, shows the complications of a divided mandate.
    2. Need for clear lines of authority: Cities require unified command structures to handle complex, interlinked systems like mobility, land, water, and waste.
    3. Strengthening mayoral authority: Without strong, visible leadership, city administrations remain unaccountable and inefficient.

    Conclusion

    India’s urban governance framework continues to concentrate power at the State level, marginalising the Mayor and weakening municipal accountability. The 74th Amendment promised decentralisation but remained half-implemented, leading to fragmented authority and weak fiscal capacity. For cities to manage growth, climate risks, and service delivery, India must structurally empower municipal institutions, ensure financial autonomy, and create visible, accountable urban leadership.
    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] “The states in India seem reluctant to empower urban local bodies both functionally as well as financially.” Comment.

    Linkage: This PYQ directly addresses the core issue of the article, why Mayors remain powerless, why States dominate municipalities, and why the 74th Amendment failed to decentralise effectively.

  • Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) Revamp Bill 

    Why in the News?

    Over 1,500 academics have protested against the Central government’s proposal to repeal the Indian Statistical Institute Act, 1959 and replace it with a new ISI Revamp Bill (Draft ISI Bill 2025). Critics argue that the Bill will erode academic autonomy, alter governance structures, and change the historic character of the ISI.

    About Indian Statistical Institute (ISI)

    • Founded: 1931 by Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.
    • Legal Status: Institution of National Importance under ISI Act, 1959.
    • Headquarters: Kolkata (historic location linked to PC Mahalanobis).
    • Centres: Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Tezpur, Giridih, Hyderabad.
    • Academic Strength: ~1,200 students.
    • Fields: Statistics, Mathematics, Quantitative Economics, Computer Science, Cryptology, Library Science, Quality Management, Operations Research.
    • Contributions:
      • Pioneer in sample survey methodology (NSS lineage).
      • Advanced statistical research and public-good-oriented academic model.
      • Free education + stipends ensuring inclusivity.

    Key Features of the Draft ISI Bill 2025

    • Repeals ISI Act, 1959 replaces existing governance and institutional safeguards.
    • Board of Governors gets overriding powers over the Academic Council, reducing the latter to an advisory status.
    • Government-controlled appointment of the Director replaces existing search-cum-selection process.
    • Allows relocation of headquarters from Kolkata raising concerns over institutional heritage.
    • Higher emphasis on revenue generation:
      • Increased student fees.
      • Commercialisation of research outputs.
    • Restructuring of regional centres possible realignment of federal structure.
    Consider the following organizations/bodies in India: 

    1. The National Commission for Backward Classes 

    2. The National Human Rights Commission 

    3. The National Law Commission 

    4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission 

    How many of the above are constitutional bodies? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Putin’s visit: The long arc of India’s ties with Russia, the road ahead

    Introduction

    India-Russia relations have historically been marked by defence cooperation, political trust, and strategic convergence. However, the global context surrounding President Putin’s December 2024 visit, his first after the Ukraine conflict, has introduced new complexities. India now navigates sanctions pressure, energy dependencies, defence shortfalls, and the need to sustain balanced relations with both the West and Russia.

    Why in the News? 

    President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India on 4-5 December for the 23rd Annual Summit is significant as it is his first visit since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. This is a period marked by sanctions, slowed defence supplies, and shifting global alignments. India-Russia bilateral trade crossed $63.8 billion, but sanctions on Russian energy and secondary sanctions on Indian companies now threaten the $100-billion trade target.

    The Evolution of India-Russia Strategic Ties

    1. Historical Convergence: New Delhi and Moscow shared close ties since the Soviet era, with Russia supporting India post-1998 sanctions.
    2. Defence Legacy: 60% of India’s defence inventory remains of Russian origin; legacy platforms need regular servicing and spares.
    3. Diversification Effort: India expanded its partnerships with the US, Europe, and others for technology, security, and economic needs.
    4. Stable Political Understanding: Leadership-level engagement remained consistent, even during geopolitical disruptions.

    Why Defence Remains the Core Pillar

    1. Legacy Equipment: India still requires servicing and spares for Russian-origin systems; replacement is slow.
    2. S-400 Delivery Issues: Russia was expected to deliver five S-400 units, but deliveries slowed due to the Ukraine war.
    3. Sanctions Impact: Sanctions on Russia impaired its ability to manufacture cutting-edge defence systems, reducing India’s supply reliability.
    4. Strategic Risk: The disruption compelled India to diversify procurement to Western partners.

    How Have Economic and Energy Ties Changed?

    1. Discounted Oil Purchases: Post-Ukraine, India bought discounted Russian crude, helping control domestic fuel prices.
    2. Trade Surge: Bilateral trade increased from $6.87 billion (FY24) to $63.8 billion last year, driven by oil imports.
    3. Trade Imbalance: India’s imports massively exceed exports; Russia aims to boost Indian exports to reach $100 billion bilateral trade.
    4. Secondary Sanctions Risk: US sanctions forced Indian companies to exit Russian shipping and oil-related operations.

    What is Expected During the Upcoming Visit?

    1. Controlled Optics: No large-scale pageantry; Modi-Putin meeting likely private and focused.
    2. Limited Public Events: No public address or mass interactions expected.
    3. West’s Scrutiny: US and Europe closely monitor the visit given ongoing tensions over Ukraine.
    4. Agenda Items: Defence delivery timelines, energy cooperation, and trade balance to dominate.

    How is India Balancing Russia and the West?

    1. Eastern Partnership: Russia remains key for defence hardware and strategic autonomy.
    2. Western Engagement: India deepened cooperation with the US and Europe in technology, capital, and mobility corridors.
    3. Strategic Autonomy: India maintains multi-alignment, ensuring no relationship becomes exclusive.
    4. Domestic Aspiration: India seeks high-technology and economic opportunities for a modernising population.

    Conclusion

    India-Russia relations enter a phase of recalibration shaped by sanctions, defence supply constraints, and India’s deepening Western partnerships. Yet, the historical trust, defence legacy, and energy complementarity ensure that Russia remains relevant for India. The challenge lies in sustaining a realistic, interest-driven relationship while managing Western scrutiny and domestic strategic needs.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

    Linkage: The question reflects India’s growing shift from Russian to US defence partnerships discussed in the article. It connects these defence ties to India’s role in ensuring stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

  • [3rd December 2025] The Hindu OpED: A template for security cooperation in the Indian Ocean

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition?

    Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to India’s strategic engagement with the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC), where Maldives is a core maritime partner. The question becomes relevant as Maldives’ political shifts, China’s growing presence, and competition over Indian Ocean trade and energy routes directly shape India’s maritime security priorities.

    Mentor’s Comment

    This article breaks down the evolving relevance of the Colombo Security Conclave (CSC) for India and the wider Indian Ocean region in 2025. China’s growing presence in the region is reshaping the geopolitical environment. In this setting, the CSC becomes an important platform for India to strengthen maritime security cooperation.

    Introduction

    The CSC has emerged as a critical framework for regional security cooperation in the Indian Ocean. It initially focused on issues such as maritime security, counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and human trafficking. Now it is attempting to institutionalise itself and broaden its mandate to address the increasingly complex geopolitical and maritime challenges in the region. India’s leadership in reviving and expanding the grouping has placed CSC at the centre of its Indian Ocean strategy.

    How is the evolving Indian Ocean environment reshaping CSC’s relevance?

    1. Strategic Shifts: The Indian Ocean region is witnessing significant changes in the broader Indo-Pacific, making cooperative security frameworks more urgent.
    2. Economic Interdependence: Littoral states depend heavily on ocean-based economies; maritime disruptions create widespread developmental challenges.
    3. Non-traditional Threats: Issues such as organised crime, cyberattacks, and trafficking continue to expand, requiring coordinated regional responses.

    What has shaped the CSC’s institutional trajectory so far?

    1. Initial Trilateral Framework: Established between India, Sri Lanka and the Maldives; momentum slowed due to political transitions in Sri Lanka and Maldives.
    2. Revival in 2020: India reinstated its engagement, establishing structured cooperation across four pillars, maritime security, counter-terrorism, trafficking, and cybersecurity.
    3. Progressive Expansion: Mauritius joined as full member (2022); Bangladesh added in 2024; Malaysia joined as observer in 2025.
    4. Growing Synergies: NSA-level coordination has strengthened common frameworks across member states.

    Why does China’s growing presence create strategic dilemmas for CSC?

    1. Contrasting Perceptions:
      1. India: Views China’s activities as a major security challenge.
      2. Other Members: Depend on China economically and see it as a developmental partner rather than a threat.
    2. Need for Balance: India must carefully manage CSC’s agenda such that the grouping does not fracture over divergent China-related security views.
    3. Anchoring India’s Priorities: CSC allows India to place maritime security and regional stability at the centre of cooperative action.

    What institutional challenges does the CSC currently face?

    1. Fragmented Frameworks: Lack of integrated institutional structures limits effective coordination.
    2. Need for Policy Consistency: Member states’ domestic disturbances (e.g., in Bangladesh) can affect the group’s resilience.
    3. Operational Limitations: Without an institutionalised Secretariat or joint mechanisms, coordination remains NSA-driven and episodic.

    What opportunities does CSC expansion create for regional security?

    1. Wider Membership: Growing membership allows for more inclusive maritime-security cooperation in the Indian Ocean.
    2. Enhanced Information-Sharing: Expanding partnerships help create common threat-perception frameworks.
    3. Forward Momentum: Malaysia’s possible future membership indicates sustained interest in CSC’s work
    4. Aligning Actionable Pathways: Collective policies on maritime issues can strengthen resilience across the region.

    Conclusion

    The CSC stands at a defining moment in 2025. Its expansion, renewed momentum, and India’s leadership provide a framework to address the growing complexity of maritime security in the Indian Ocean. However, institutional strengthening, policy coherence, and careful handling of China-related sensitivities will determine how successfully the CSC evolves into a reliable, long-term regional security architecture.