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GS Paper: GS3

  • India expands GHG emission intensity regime to four more sectors

    Why in the news

    • The Union Government has expanded the Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity reduction regime to four additional industrial sectors under amended rules notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • The move operationalises India’s Carbon Credit Trading framework and strengthens compliance based climate mitigation.

    Newly included sectors

    • Petroleum refineries, Petrochemicals, Textiles, andSecondary aluminium
    • These are in addition to aluminium, cement, chlor alkali and pulp and paper sectors notified earlier.

    Coverage

    • 208 industrial units across India
      • 173 textile units
      • 21 petroleum refineries
      • 11 petrochemical units
      • 3 secondary aluminium units
    • Major public sector and private companies covered include
      • ONGC, Indian Oil, Bharat Petroleum, Hindustan Petroleum, Numaligarh Refinery and Reliance Industries.

    Legal and policy framework

    • Notified as Greenhouse Gases Emission Intensity Target Amendment Rules
    • Issued under the compliance mechanism of the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023
    • Enforced by the Central Pollution Control Board

    What is GEI (Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity) target?

    • Mandatory reduction of GHG emissions per unit of output
    • Baseline year is 2023 to 24
    • Targets apply from 2025 to 26
    • Overall reduction of 3 to 7 percent by 2026 to 27

    Compliance and penalty

    • Units must either
      • Meet GEI targets
      • Or submit carbon credit certificates equal to the shortfall
    • Non compliance penalty
      • Imposed as environmental compensation by CPCB
      • Amount equals twice the average carbon credit price in that trading cycle
      • Payable within 90 days

    Climate significance

    • Aligns with India’s net zero target of 2070
    • Supports India’s Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement
    • Promotes market driven decarbonisation instead of criminal penalties
    • Pushes energy efficiency and cleaner technologies in high emission sectors

    UPSC Prelims pointers

    • GEI focuses on emission intensity, not absolute emissions
    • Linked to Carbon Credit Trading Scheme 2023
    • Penalty equals 2 times average carbon credit price
    • Enforcement by CPCB
    • Supports India’s net zero 2070 pathway
    [2011] Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the following statements is not correct? 

    (a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol

    (b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota

    (c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission

    (d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations environment programs

  • BNHS and NMCG launch project to protect Indian Skimmer

    Why in the news

    Bombay Natural History Society and National Mission for Clean Ganga have launched a new conservation project in Dehradun to protect the endangered Indian Skimmer in the Ganga Basin. The project was inaugurated by the Union Minister for Jal Shakti C R Patil.

    About Indian Skimmer

    • Scientific name: Rynchops albicollis
    • IUCN status: Endangered
    • Habitat: Large rivers, estuaries, sandbars and islands
    • India hosts around 90 percent of the global population, making conservation nationally critical.

    Core objective

    • Protection of river sandbars, which are crucial nesting and breeding habitats for Indian Skimmer and other riverine birds.

    Major threats addressed

    • Sand mining on riverbeds
    • Altered river flows and sudden water releases from dams
    • Human and livestock disturbance
    • Predation and habitat fragmentation

    Geographical coverage

    • National Chambal Sanctuary
    • Upper Ganga near Bijnor and Narora
    • Ganga Yamuna confluence at Prayagraj
    • Lower Ganga near the Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary in Bihar

    UPSC Prelims pointers

    • Indian Skimmer nests on exposed river sandbars.
    • India holds the largest global population share of the species.
    • Project combines science, community participation, and river planning.
    • Linked with Namami Gange ecosystem restoration goals.
    [2014] With reference to Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), consider the following statements: 1. It is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Environment and Forests

    2. It strives to conserve nature through action-based research, education and public awareness

    3. It organizes and conducts nature trails and camps for the general public

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

  • Environmental (Protection) Fund

    Why in the news

    The Union Government notified detailed rules in January 2026 to operationalise the Environmental (Protection) Fund, a reform enabled by the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023.

    About

    • A statutory fund of the Government of India created to channel environmental penalties into pollution control, restoration, monitoring, research, and capacity building.
    • Converts monetary penalties into direct environmental remediation.

    Legal basis

    • Provided under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Detailed rules notified in January 2026.
    • Strengthened by the Jan Vishwas Act, 2023, which decriminalised several environmental offences while retaining penalties.

    Nodal authority

    • Administered by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change or any body notified by the Central Government.

    Aim

    • Ensure that pollution penalties are recycled for environmental protection, remediation, clean technology promotion, and stronger regulatory institutions.

    Key features

    • Sources of funds
      • Penalties under the Air Act 1981 and Environment Act 1986
      • Interest from investments
      • Other prescribed sources
    • Permitted uses (11 activities)
      • Pollution prevention and mitigation
      • Remediation of contaminated sites
      • Environmental monitoring equipment
      • Clean technology research
      • IT enabled regulatory systems
      • Laboratory infrastructure
      • Capacity building of regulatory bodies
    • Revenue sharing
      • 75% of penalty proceeds to the Consolidated Fund of the State or UT
      • 25% retained by the Centre
    • Governance: Dedicated Project Management Units at Central and State levels
    • Oversight and transparency
      • Audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
      • Centralised online portal developed by the Central Pollution Control Board
    [2019] Consider the following statements: The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to: 

    1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought

    2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • DAE’s nuclear pivot: Light water push to tap global markets, retain heavy water edge

    Why in the News

    India’s nuclear establishment is prioritising Light Water Reactors (LWRs) for global market integration while retaining Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) as a domestic and strategic strength. This marks a significant departure from India’s earlier inward-looking PHWR-centric approach. The shift is urgent as Light Water Reactors account for over 85% of global nuclear capacity. India seeks export competitiveness as emerging economies like the UAE, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey expand nuclear power.

    What is a Light Water Reactor?

    1. A Light Water Reactor (LWR) is a nuclear reactor that uses ordinary water (H₂O) as both the coolant and neutron moderator.
    2. Fuel type: Operates on low-enriched uranium fuel.

    What is a Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor?

    1. Definition: A Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear reactor that uses heavy water (D₂O) as both the coolant and neutron moderator.
    2. Fuel type: Operates on natural uranium, avoiding the need for enrichment.

    Why do Light Water Reactors dominate the global nuclear market?

    1. Global share: LWRs constitute over 85% of installed civil nuclear reactor capacity worldwide.
    2. Design simplicity: Uses normal water as coolant and moderator, reducing engineering complexity.
    3. Cost structure: Lower construction costs due to economies of scale and standardised designs.
    4. Operational efficiency: Higher thermal efficiency compared to heavy water reactors.
    5. Fuel ecosystem: Reliance on enriched uranium, readily accessible in Western markets.

    Why has India relied on PHWRs despite global LWR dominance?

    1. Fuel flexibility: PHWRs operate on natural uranium, reducing enrichment dependence.
    2. Resource alignment: Matches India’s limited uranium and abundant thorium reserves.
    3. Indigenous capability: Strong domestic expertise in design, manufacturing, and operation.
    4. Strategic autonomy: Minimises external fuel supply vulnerabilities.
    5. Limitation: Reduced export competitiveness in markets structured around LWR ecosystems.

    Why is the current LWR push a strategic departure for India?

    1. Export integration: Enables Indian firms to enter the global nuclear supply chain.
    2. Private participation: Supported by legal reforms opening nuclear power to non-state actors.
    3. Project acceleration: DAE fast-tracking the 900 MWe indigenous LWR design, initiated in 2015.
    4. Negotiating leverage: Enhances bargaining capacity with foreign vendors on imports and technology.
    5. Market realism: Aligns reactor strategy with international demand patterns.

    What challenges have exposed the limits of LWR-led imports?

    1. Cost escalation: Higher capital costs translate into elevated electricity tariffs.
    2. Domestic displacement: Risk of sidelining indigenous PHWR manufacturing capacity.
    3. Case study: Jaitapur: Project delays due to tariff concerns, liability issues, and Areva’s financial instability.
    4. Market absorption: Indian electricity markets struggle to absorb high-cost nuclear power.

    How are PHWRs repositioned in India’s nuclear future?

    1. Fuel innovation: PHWRs using thorium and low-enriched uranium lower scale-up constraints.
    2. Export differentiation: Positions PHWRs as a niche solution for resource-constrained economies.
    3. Manufacturing depth: Builds on India’s experience from 220 MWe to 700 MWe PHWR units.
    4. Growth alignment: Supports nuclear expansion without overreliance on imported enrichment services.

    What role do SMRs play in India’s nuclear ambitions?

    1. Capacity range: 30-300 MWe Small Modular Reactors (SMRs).
    2. Cost efficiency: Enables modular, scalable deployment.
    3. Export potential: Enhances attractiveness for emerging economies.
    4. Strategic competition: China pursuing SMR leadership as a Global South diplomatic tool, similar to EV sector disruption.

    Conclusion

    India’s nuclear pivot reflects strategic pragmatism rather than abandonment of legacy strengths. The dual-track approach, global LWR integration combined with PHWR-based differentiation, balances export ambition, energy security, and industrial capability. Success depends on managing costs, protecting indigenous capacity, and converting legislative reform into manufacturing scale.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy?

    Linkage: The question links directly to India’s energy security and clean baseload power needs, where nuclear energy complements renewables. The current debate on LWR expansion, PHWR indigenisation, high costs, and safety concerns reflects the balance between the facts and fears of nuclear power.

  • Indigenous Light Water Reactor Push

    Why in the News?

    India is fast tracking the fabrication of an indigenous Light Water Reactor (LWR) as it opens the nuclear power sector to private participation and explores opportunities in the global nuclear export market.

    Key Development

    • The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is accelerating work on a 900 MWe indigenous LWR.
    • Design work began in 2015.
    • Objective is to complement India’s existing Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) fleet.
    • Indigenous LWR capability is expected to improve India’s bargaining power with foreign reactor vendors.

    Why LWRs Matter Globally

    • LWRs account for over 85 percent of global civil nuclear reactor capacity.
    • Used extensively by United States, Russia and France.
    • Dominant technology in international reactor trade and supply chains.
    • Without LWR integration, India risks limited access to global nuclear exports.

    LWR vs PHWR

    • Light Water Reactors

        • Use ordinary water as coolant and moderator
        • Require enriched uranium fuel
        • Simpler design, lower construction cost
        • Higher thermal efficiency
        • Strong economies of scale

    • Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors

      • Use heavy water (deuterium)
      • Operate on natural uranium
      • Core strength of India’s nuclear programme
      • Greater fuel flexibility
      • Less attractive in export markets dominated by LWRs

    Legal and Policy Context

    • The Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India Act, 2025 enables:
      • Greater private sector participation
      • More imported LWR based projects
    • Addresses earlier liability concerns raised by foreign suppliers.
    • Supports projects like Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant.

    Export and Strategic Angle

    • Indigenous LWR enhances India’s role in the global nuclear supply chain.
    • Emerging economies like UAE, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are expanding nuclear capacity.
    • India could position itself as a supplier of:
      • PHWRs fuelled with thorium and low enriched uranium
      • Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) of 30 to 300 MWe

    Thorium and India

    • India has modest uranium but vast thorium reserves.
    • Using thorium with low enriched uranium in PHWRs can:
      • Ease fuel constraints
      • Support large scale nuclear expansion
      • Strengthen India’s unique reactor niche

    Prelims Pointers

    • LWRs dominate the global nuclear reactor market.
    • India’s proposed indigenous LWR capacity is 900 MWe.
    • PHWRs remain India’s technological strength.
    • Nuclear amendments aim to attract private and foreign investment.
    • SMRs are emerging as a tool of energy diplomacy, including by China.
    [2023] Consider the following statements: 

    Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most of its electricity production. 

    Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent of at least 60%, is required for the production of electricity. 

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? 

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I 

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1 

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect 

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

  • Indigenous Sodium Ion Battery Development in India

    Why in the News?

    The Chatterjee Group is considering commercial production of indigenous sodium ion batteries, following successful development of a high speed charging Na ion battery by its research arm.

    Key Development

    • Scientists at Research Institute for Sustainable Energy (RISE) have developed an India sourced sodium ion battery.
    • Battery charges up to 94 percent in 5 minutes.
    • Energy density: ~180 Wh per kg, comparable to lithium iron phosphate batteries.
    • Prototype may be ready for industrial scale deployment in 2 to 3 years.
    • Estimated commercial investment could reach 10 to 12 billion dollars.

    About Sodium Ion Batteries

    • Use sodium instead of lithium as the charge carrier.
    • Sodium is abundant, low cost and widely available.
    • Safer thermal profile compared to lithium ion batteries.

    Key advantages

    • No use of lithium, cobalt, nickel or copper.
    • Reduces dependence on critical mineral imports, especially from China.
    • Lower supply chain vulnerability.

    Commercial Potential Areas

    • Electric mobility, especially two and three wheelers due to fast charging needs.
    • Grid scale energy storage for renewable energy integration.
    • Off grid and rural energy systems where robust and low cost storage is required.
    [2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements: 

    I. Cobalt 

    II. Graphite 

    III. Lithium 

    IV. Nickel 

    How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All the four

  • Second Range wide Dolphin Survey

    Why in the News?

    The Second Range wide Dolphin Survey has been launched from Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh under Project Dolphin to update dolphin population estimates, assess habitat quality and identify threats across India’s river systems.

    About Project Dolphin

    A national conservation initiative of the Government of India for protecting riverine and oceanic dolphins through habitat protection, scientific monitoring and community participation.

    Key details

    • Launched: 15 August 2020
    • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
    • Aim:
      • Conserve dolphin diversity in India
      • Address threats like pollution, habitat degradation, by catch and altered river flows
      • Involve local communities and stakeholders

    Key features

    • 10 year initiative with pan India coverage
    • Focus on riverine and oceanic species
    • Scientific surveys and monitoring for population trends
    • Linked with river ecosystem conservation and policy action

    Second Range wide Dolphin Survey

    • A pan India scientific estimation exercise to assess:
      • Dolphin population size
      • Distribution and habitat condition
      • Anthropogenic and ecological threats

    Covers riverine and estuarine dolphins in a structured manner.

    Implementation and coverage

    • Phase I:
      • Main stem of the Ganga from Bijnor to Ganga Sagar
      • Indus river system
    • Phase II: Brahmaputra, Ganga tributaries, Sundarbans delta and Odisha river and estuarine systems
    • Coordinating agency: Wildlife Institute of India
    • Implemented with State Forest Departments and conservation partners
    • Uses standardised protocols, hydrophones for acoustic monitoring and trained field teams

    Note: Oceanic dolphins in Indian waters include Indo-Pacific bottlenose (Tursiops aduncus), spinner (Stenella longirostris), seen along Gujarat, Kerala, Odisha coasts in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

    Previous Survey Findings (2021 to 2023)

    • Around 6,327 riverine dolphins recorded across India
    • Highest populations: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
    • Followed by West Bengal and Assam
    • Small population of Indus River Dolphin recorded in the Beas system

    Prelims Takeaways

    • Project Dolphin was launched in 2020
    • Nodal ministry is MoEFCC
    • Second survey uses acoustic monitoring via hydrophones
    • Ganga and Brahmaputra systems are key dolphin habitats
    • India hosts both riverine and oceanic dolphins
    [2014] Other than poaching, what are the possible reasons for the decline in the population of Ganga River Dolphins? 

    1. Construction of dams and barrages on rivers

    2. Increase in the population of crocodiles in rivers

    3. Getting trapped in fishing nets accidentally

    4. Use of synthetic fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals in crop-fields in the vicinity of rivers

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

  • Chips to Start up (C2S) Programme

    Why in the News?

    The Chips to Start up (C2S) Programme has reported strong outcomes, including 56 student designed chips fabricated, 75 plus patents filed, and large scale national training in chip design, reflecting India’s growing indigenous semiconductor design capability.

    About Chips to Start up (C2S) Programme

    • The Chips to Start up (C2S) Programme is a national capacity building and innovation initiative to develop industry ready chip design talent and strengthen India’s indigenous semiconductor ecosystem through hands on training, research and fabrication exposure.
    • Launched in: 2022
    • Implemented by: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology

    Aim

    • Create a strong pipeline of skilled chip designers
    • Enable hands on chip fabrication for students
    • Promote start ups, patents and IP creation
    • Support technological self reliance in semiconductors

    Key Features

    • Financial outlay: ₹250 crore for 5 years
    • Infrastructure and tools: Access to shared EDA tools, High Performance Computing (HPC), FPGA boards, and SMART laboratories across institutions
    • Hands on fabrication: Shared wafer runs provided through Semi Conductor Laboratory.
    • Chip design enablement: National ChipIN Centre and Operated by Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Bengaluru
    • Innovation outcomes: Student designed ASICs and SoCs, Start up incubation, Patents, IP cores and chip prototypes
    • Industry collaboration: Training partnerships with global EDA and semiconductor firms

    Significance

    • Addresses the global semiconductor skill gap
    • Democratises chip design by providing nationwide access to advanced tools and fabrication
    • Reduces dependence on foreign design ecosystems
    • Strengthens Atmanirbhar Bharat in a strategic and security sensitive sector
    • Complements India’s broader semiconductor manufacturing and design policy

    Prelims Takeaways

    • C2S Programme launched in 2022
    • Implemented by MeitY
    • Focus on chip design plus fabrication exposure
    • Uses SCL Mohali for wafer runs
    • ChipIN Centre operated by C DAC Bengaluru
    • Key pillar of India’s indigenous semiconductor capability building
    [2025] Consider the following statements: 

    1. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing

    2. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS)

    3. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III

  • Cyclones

  • Universe, Solar System Discoveries