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GS Paper: GS3

  • Rowmari- Donduwa Wetland Complex

    Why in the News?

    Environmentalists in Assam have proposed the Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex for designation as a Ramsar Site, citing its exceptional biodiversity and ecological services.

    Assam’s Wetland Context:

    • Current Scenario: Assam has 3,500+ wetlands (≈1.01 lakh ha), but only Deepor Beel (2002) is a Ramsar Site.
    • Conservation Importance: Designating Rowmari–Donduwa would fill a 20-year conservation gap and enhance Assam’s global wetland profile.
    • Regional Context: North-East India’s Ramsar Sites-  Deepor Beel (Assam), Loktak (Manipur), Rudrasagar (Tripura), Pala (Mizoram).

    About Rowmari–Donduwa Wetland Complex:

    • Overview: Situated within the Laokhowa–Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagaon district, Assam, forming part of the Kaziranga–Orang landscape.
    • Ecological Role: An interconnected floodplain–marsh system acting as an ecological corridor between Kaziranga and Orang National Parks, supporting wildlife movement and genetic diversity.
    • Biodiversity Significance: The 6th Kaziranga Wetland Bird Census (2025) recorded 47,000+ birds of 120 species, exceeding counts from Deepor Beel and Loktak Lake.
    • Key Species: Hosts globally threatened birds, Knob-billed Duck, Lesser Adjutant Stork, Black-necked Stork, Ferruginous Pochard, and Common Pochard.
    • Ecosystem Services: Provides flood control, groundwater recharge, carbon storage, and supports fisheries and ecotourism-based livelihoods.
    • Ramsar Eligibility: Fulfils 8 of 9 Ramsar criteria, qualifying as a Wetland of International Importance.

    Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention

    • Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
    • Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
    • Functions:
      • Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
      • Promote effective management of wetlands.
      • Foster international cooperation for conservation.
    • Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
    • India and Ramsar:
      • India joined in 1982.
      • First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
      • Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
      • Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
      • State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
      • About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
    • Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
      • 48 sites globally (2025).
      • 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
    • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
      • 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.

    Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):

    A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:

    1. Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
    2. Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
    3. Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
    4. Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
    5. Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
    6. Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
    7. Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
    8. Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
    9. Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.

     

    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Wetland/Lake Location

    1. Hokera Wetland- Punjab

    2. Renuka Wetland- Himachal Pradesh

    3. Rudrasagar Lake- Tripura

    4. Sasthamkotta Lake- Tamil Nadu

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

     

  • ISRO’s LVM3 Rocket launches GSAT-7R

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully launched the GSAT-7R (CMS-03) communication satellite for the Indian Navy from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.

    Back2Basics: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) Rocket  

    • Overview: LVM3 formerly GSLV Mk-III, is ISRO’s heaviest and most powerful launch vehicle, built to lift 4-tonne GTO and 8-tonne LEO payloads.
    • Configuration: A 3-stage system – (1) S200 solid boosters, (2) L110 liquid core (UH25 + N₂O₄), and (2) C25 cryogenic upper stage (LH₂ + LOX) providing high thrust and precision.
    • Payload Capacity: Delivers ~4,000 kg to GTO and ~8,000 kg to LEO; GSAT-7R demonstrated >4,400 kg capability, setting a new record.
    • Mission Legacy: Successfully launched Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3, OneWeb satellites, and Gaganyaan crew module tests.
    • Cryogenic Stage: The C25 engine produces ~20 tonnes thrust; the upgraded C32 stage (22 tonnes thrust) is under development.
    • Future Upgrade: Plans to replace L110 with a semi-cryogenic kerosene–liquid oxygen stage for higher efficiency and lower cost.
    • Reliability & Role: With seven consecutive successes, LVM3 is India’s most dependable heavy launcher and baseline vehicle for Gaganyaan and Bharatiya Antariksh Station missions.
    • Strategic Significance: Establishes India’s complete autonomy in heavy launch capability, strengthening its position in the global space economy.

    About GSAT-7R (CMS-03):

    • Overview: An advanced multiband communication satellite developed to strengthen the Indian Navy’s secure communications and maritime domain awareness across the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
    • Developer & Design: Indigenously designed by ISRO under Aatmanirbhar Bharat, advancing self-reliance in defence space infrastructure.
    • Mass & Orbit: Weighs ~4,410 kg, the heaviest communication satellite launched from Indian soil; inserted into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) before shifting to Geostationary Orbit (~36,000 km).
    • Technical Features: Equipped with secure, high-throughput multiband transponders supporting voice, data, and video links across ships, submarines, and aircraft.
    • Coverage & Capability: Provides pan-Indian Ocean coverage, enabling real-time encrypted communication and Blue Water operational readiness.
    • Strategic Role: Functions as a key node in the Defence Communication Network (DCN), enhancing situational awareness and naval coordination.
    • Predecessor: Succeeds GSAT-7 (Rukmini, 2013) with expanded range, bandwidth, and capacity.
    • Significance: Symbolises India’s move toward indigenous defence satellites, merging space technology and national security.
    [UPSC 2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements :

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

     

  • Decoding India’s projected GDP

    Why in the News

    Union Minister Piyush Goyal stated that India will become a $30 trillion economy in 20-25 years, emphasising India’s “strength-to-strength” growth and the vision of matching the US economy in scale. However, an analysis of India’s GDP trajectory and exchange rate trends over the past 25 years suggests that this goal appears overstated unless the rate of economic growth increases substantially. The divergence between nominal GDP growth and exchange rate depreciation is central to understanding why India may fall short of this projection.

    How is the Size of an Economy Measured?

    1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Represents the total annual value of goods and services produced within a country.
    2. Nominal GDP: Expressed in current prices and domestic currency (rupees).
    3. Conversion to USD: For global comparison, GDP in rupees is divided by the exchange rate (₹ per $).
    4. Example: India’s nominal GDP in FY 2024 is ₹330 trillion, translating to about $3.9 trillion at an exchange rate of ₹84.6 per USD.
    5. Comparative Context: The US GDP in 2024 is estimated at $41 trillion, nearly 10 times India’s size.

    Where Does the Divergence in GDP Projection Arise?

    1. Historical Growth (25 years):
      • India’s nominal GDP grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 10.3%.
      • The rupee depreciated by 3.08% per year.
      • This combination would yield a net dollar GDP growth of around 7.2% CAGR, resulting in a $31.9 trillion economy by 2048.
    2. Recent Growth (past 11 years):
      • India’s nominal GDP CAGR dropped to 8.2%.
      • The rupee’s depreciation averaged 3.08%, giving a dollar GDP CAGR of just 5.1%.
      • Under this trend, India’s GDP would reach only $17.4 trillion by 2048.
    3. Key Finding: The long-term projection is highly sensitive to assumptions. Small changes in growth or currency value lead to large differences in dollar GDP outcomes.

    Why is the $30 Trillion Target Difficult to Achieve?

    1. Slowing Growth Momentum: India’s nominal GDP growth rate has weakened since 2014, reflecting post-pandemic structural and demand-side constraints.
    2. Exchange Rate Depreciation: The rupee has steadily weakened over time, eroding the USD value of India’s output despite growth in rupee terms.
    3. Inflation Differential: India’s higher inflation compared to advanced economies results in faster currency depreciation, reducing the global GDP value.
    4. Projection Assumptions: To achieve $30 trillion, India must sustain a nominal GDP CAGR of ~11% and limit currency depreciation below 2.5%, a historically rare combination.

    Is the $30 Trillion Vision Still Useful?

    1. Aspirational Benchmark: The projection serves as a long-term vision anchor for policy and investment decisions, guiding structural reforms.
    2. Strategic Optimism: Such forecasts reflect confidence in India’s demographics, industrial potential, and service exports.
    3. Policy Implication: Even if unattained, the projection pushes economic governance to focus on productivity, export competitiveness, and rupee stability.

    What Needs to Change for Realising the Vision?

    1. Sustained High Growth: Requires double-digit nominal growth through manufacturing diversification, digital economy expansion, and logistics reforms.
    2. Rupee Stability: Demands foreign investment confidence, fiscal discipline, and stronger current account performance.
    3. Inflation Control: Stable inflation curbs depreciation and maintains global competitiveness.
    4. Structural Reforms: Continued focus on labour, land, and capital market reforms to support long-term productivity.

    Conclusion

    India’s $30 trillion projection embodies the nation’s growth ambition, but economic realism demands higher productivity, policy consistency, and exchange rate stability. Without stronger structural momentum, India may remain well below that figure by mid-century. The aspiration, however, serves as a strategic motivator to deepen reforms and strengthen global competitiveness.

    Value Addition

    Potential vs. Actual GDP

    • Concept: Potential GDP is the highest level of economic output a country can sustain without triggering inflation. Actual GDP is the output the economy is currently producing.
    • Analytical Insight: India’s $30 trillion projection represents potential GDP, based on the assumption of sustained double-digit nominal growth, efficient use of labour, and strong capital formation. However, actual GDP growth depends on real-world constraints such as productivity levels, policy bottlenecks, and infrastructure capacity.
    • Example: Between 2003-08, India’s actual growth (9%) was close to potential, driven by investment and exports. Post-2014, growth averaged ≈6-6.5%, showing an increasing gap due to slowing manufacturing, skill mismatch, and weak private investment.

    Nominal vs. Real Growth Distinction

    • Concept: Nominal GDP measures total output using current prices (includes inflation). Real GDP adjusts for inflation, showing actual growth in production volume.
    • Analytical Insight: A rise in nominal GDP may overstate economic progress if inflation is high or the rupee depreciates. Thus, even with strong nominal growth, India’s dollar GDP may stagnate or fall in global rankings.
    • Example: In FY2023-24, India’s nominal GDP grew by 9.6% in rupee terms, but the rupee’s depreciation from ₹79 to ₹83 per USD meant real GDP in dollar terms grew only 5%. This illustrates how inflation and currency value distort perceptions of “growth.”

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP?

    Linkage: The PYQ tests conceptual clarity on potential GDP, its determinants, and growth constraint. This is a recurring UPSC theme reflecting India’s long-term economic health and reform needs.

     

  • [pib] National Marine Fisheries Census, 2025

    Why in the News?

    Union Minister of State for Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying George Kurian officially launched the National Marine Fisheries Census (MFC) 2025 at ICAR–Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI).

    About National Marine Fisheries Census, 2025:

    • Objective: To collect detailed data on fishermen population, crafts, gear, livelihood patterns, and welfare indicators for evidence-based policy and blue economy planning.
    • Overview: The 5th national enumeration of India’s marine fisheries sector after 1980, 1998, 2005, and 2010 rounds.
    • Implementing Agencies: Conducted by the Department of Fisheries (DoF) under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry & Dairying, coordinated by ICAR–CMFRI with Fishery Survey of India (FSI) as operational partner.
    • Coverage: Encompasses 1.2 million fisher households across 4,000–5,000 marine fishing villages in nine coastal states and four UTs, including Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.
    • Funding & Legal Basis: Financed under the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) with an allocation of ₹16.2 crore for digital census operations.

    Key Features:

    • Digital Data Collection: First paperless marine census using apps, VyAS Bharat, VyAS Sutra, and VyAS NAV, enabling geo-tagged, real-time data capture and validation.
    • Technological Integration: Uses drone-based craft surveys and live dashboards at CMFRI; establishes a National Marine Fisheries Data Centre for analytics and storage.
    • Expanded Scope: Covers ornamental fisheries, seaweed farming, and post-harvest value chain activities; includes data on credit, insurance, and welfare access.
    • NFDP Linkage: Mandates registration on the National Fisheries Digital Platform (NFDP) to ensure DBT-based benefit delivery under PM Matsya Kisan Samridhi Sah-Yojana (PM-MKSSY).
    • Inclusive Approach: Involves 1,000+ trained enumerators with state departments and fisher cooperatives, promoting community participation for accuracy.
    • Government Initiative: Promotes safety tools like vessel transponders and turtle excluder devices (TEDs); embodies the vision “Smart Census, Smarter Fisheries.”

  • [31st October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: AI’s rewriting the rule of education

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in the healthcare?

    Linkage: The PYQ highlights AI’s role in improving efficiency while raising privacy concerns. This theme directly relates to ethical and responsible use of AI in education.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s education system is witnessing a paradigm shift. The government’s decision to integrate Artificial Intelligence (AI) into school curricula from as early as Class 3 (2026-27) marks a decisive break from conventional learning. It signals not just a content shift, but a pedagogical revolution, from rote learning to personalised, data-driven education. The move holds immense promise but also raises profound questions on inclusivity, teacher readiness, and ethical adaptation.

    Introduction

    India’s AI-enabled education initiative, aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, seeks to embed AI learning across the entire K-12 spectrum. The objective is to build a tech-savvy, future-ready workforce capable of thriving in a knowledge-driven global economy. However, as India gears up for this transformation, the focus extends beyond hardware and software, it includes teacher capacity-building, curriculum redesign, and equitable access to technology.

    Why in the News

    India will become one of the first major education systems globally to introduce AI at the school level. This move marks a sharp contrast to traditional “one-size-fits-all” models, where uniform pedagogy dominated classrooms.

    The Ministry of Education’s pilot programs have already trained over 10,000 teachers since 2019, in collaboration with Intel, IBM, and premier national institutes. Yet, the scale of reform, covering over 9 million educators, poses a massive challenge. AI’s integration represents not only an educational reform but also a socio-economic turning point, redefining teacher roles, learning processes, and workforce readiness.

    How is AI Transforming Teaching and Learning?

    1. Personalised Learning: AI-powered platforms analyse student behaviour, learning speed, and comprehension to design custom lessons, ensuring each learner’s unique needs are addressed.
    2. Enhanced Engagement: Adaptive systems use gamified interfaces and feedback loops to sustain learner attention and motivation.
    3. Human-AI Synergy: AI acts as an assistant, not a replacement, to educators, allowing teachers to focus on empathy, creativity, and conceptual depth.
    4. Real-Time Feedback: Automated assessment tools provide instant analytics on student performance, aiding teachers in timely interventions.

    How Are Teachers Being Equipped for AI Education?

    1. Teacher Upskilling: Over 10,000 educators trained under pilot projects since 2019 by MoE in collaboration with Intel and IBM.
    2. Curriculum Integration: AI modules embedded within existing NEP frameworks from kindergarten to Class 12.
    3. Pedagogical Shift: Teachers transition from content delivery to concept facilitation, focusing on AI-driven planning, analytics, and adaptive mentoring.
    4. Challenge of Scale: India’s 9 million teachers require reskilling; success depends on effective outreach and digital readiness.

    What Are the Opportunities and Disruptions Ahead?

    1. Employment Generation: AI adoption projected to create four million new jobs by 2030, with rising demand for digital adaptability.
    2. Skill Realignment: Emphasis on critical thinking, empathy, and creativity, complementing AI’s automation capabilities.
    3. Workforce Transition: AI-enabled education aims to prepare students for jobs that do not yet exist, requiring continuous learning.
    4. Economic Implication: According to NITI Aayog, AI could add up to two million jobs in India’s tech sector in the next decade

    Does AI Ensure Inclusivity and Accessibility

    1. Breaking Barriers: AI tools help overcome language, disability, and learning challenges, enabling wider access.
    2. Customised Content: AI-powered language processing supports non-native speakers and visually impaired learners.
    3. Digital Divide Concern: Equal access to AI resources remains uneven, demanding policy interventions for infrastructure parity.
    4. Diversity Support: In a multilingual India, AI can act as a bridge between learners of different socio-linguistic backgrounds.

    Could AI Become the Great Equaliser in Education?

    1. Equitable Opportunities: AI democratises learning by offering universal access to quality resources.
    2. Smart Governance: Data-driven insights help design evidence-based educational policies.
    3. Social Equity Impact: Reduces dependence on geography or school infrastructure, aligning with SDG 4 (Quality Education).
    4. Ethical Imperatives: Algorithmic fairness, data protection, and bias elimination remain essential for sustainable AI deployment.

    Conclusion

    AI’s integration into education represents a transformative leap rather than a linear reform. The focus must remain on teacher empowerment, inclusive infrastructure, and ethical governance to ensure the AI revolution benefits all. India’s model, if executed successfully, could emerge as a global benchmark for equitable, adaptive learning in the 21st century.

  • Nauradehi WLS to become 3rd home for Cheetahs in Madhya Pradesh

    Why in the News?

    Madhya Pradesh CM has announced that Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary will soon become the third home for cheetahs in the State, after Kuno National Park and Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary.

    About Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary:

    • Overview: Largest wildlife sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh, covering 1,197 sq km across Sagar, Damoh, and Narsinghpur districts; located between the Narmada and Ganga river basins, forming a key ecological transition zone.
    • Establishment: Declared in 1975 to conserve the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes), the flagship species. Habitat includes dry deciduous forests, scrublands, and grasslands supporting leopard, sloth bear, blackbuck, nilgai, chital, and hyena populations.
    • Upgradation (2024): Elevated to a Tiger Reserve to strengthen protection and become eligible for Project Cheetah under the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
    • Connectivity: Linked with Panna Tiger Reserve and Satpura Tiger Reserve through the Nauradehi–Panna corridor, ensuring gene flow across Central India’s forest landscapes.
    • Habitat Characteristics: Open woodlands, scrub forests, and wide grass patches with undulating terrain ideal for high-speed pursuit predators like cheetahs.
    • Prey Base: Rich in blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chital (Axis axis), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), and wild boar.
    • Environmental Setting: Moderate rainfall, tributaries of the Narmada River, and dry tropical climate create a balanced hydrological regime.
    • Scientific Endorsement: Recognised by Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and NTCA as among India’s most feasible future cheetah habitats.

    Nauradehi WLS to become 3rd home for Cheetahs in Madhya Pradesh

    Cheetahs and their Reintroduction in India:

    • Overview: The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is the world’s fastest land mammal (80–128 km/h). Two subspecies: African cheetah (A.j. jubatus) across Africa and Asiatic cheetah (A.j. venaticus) confined to Iran (< 30 individuals).
    • Conservation Status: Asiatic subspecies Critically Endangered by the IUCN; global population ≈ 6,500 mature individuals.
    • Extinction in India: Last recorded in Koriya (Chhattisgarh) in 1947; officially declared extinct in 1952 due to hunting and grassland degradation.
    • Project Cheetah (2022): Implemented by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and NTCA with WII support; aims to restore cheetahs in India’s grasslands and revive lost ecological roles.
    • Translocation Phases: Eight cheetahs from Namibia (Sept 2022) and twelve from South Africa (Feb 2023) released at Kuno National Park (Madhya Pradesh).
    • Meta-Population Plan: To establish a connected population across Kuno, Gandhi Sagar, Nauradehi, and Mukundra Hills (Rajasthan) ensuring genetic diversity and landscape-level connectivity.
    • Long-Term Goal: Create a self-sustaining population of 35–40 individuals within 15 years through science-based, landscape-driven restoration.
    • Current Phase: Majority under semi-captive adaptation at Kuno; expansion to Nauradehi and Gandhi Sagar Tiger Reserves planned to reduce crowding and enhance resilience.

     

    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:
    1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopardWhich of the above are naturally found in India?(a) 1, 2 and 3 only  (b) 1, 3 and 4 only*  (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • [pib] Integrated Cold Chain and Value Addition Infrastructure (ICCVAI)

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has approved an enhanced outlay of ₹6,520 crore for the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY), including ₹1,000 crore earmarked for 50 irradiation units under the Integrated Cold Chain and Value Addition Infrastructure (ICCVAI) Scheme.

    About the Integrated Cold Chain and Value Addition Infrastructure (ICCVAI) Scheme:

    • Objective: To build an end-to-end cold chain and value addition system from farm gate to consumer, ensuring unbroken preservation, reduced losses, and fair returns to farmers.
    • Overview: A Central Sector Scheme under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MoFPI), implemented as a component of the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY).
    • Coverage: Focuses on non-horticultural produce, dairy, meat, poultry, and marine fish, while fruits, vegetables, and shrimp fall under Operation Greens.
    • Goal: Minimise post-harvest wastage, promote value addition, and provide year-round food availability through modern cold chain infrastructure.
    • Participation: Open to farmers, FPOs/FPCs, cooperatives, SHGs, NGOs, companies, and PSUs on a demand-driven basis.

    Details of the ICCVAI Scheme:

    • Objectives: Develop pre-cooling, cold storage, processing, and refrigerated transport; strengthen farmer–market linkages; promote modern technologies like irradiation and renewable energy; and enhance food safety and shelf life.
    • Infrastructure Components:
      • Farm-Level Infrastructure (FLI): Pre-cooling, grading, packaging near production zones.
      • Processing Centres: Multi-product processing and testing units.
      • Distribution Hubs: Multi-temperature storage for aggregation and retail dispatch.
      • Refrigerated Transport: Reefer vans and mobile tankers for seamless cold logistics.
      • Irradiation Units: For sterilisation and shelf-life extension via ionising radiation.
    • Financial Assistance:
      • 35% of project cost in general areas; 50% in difficult areas (NE, hill states, islands, ITDP regions) or for SC/ST/FPO/SHG entities.
      • Grant cap: ₹ 10 crore per project, released in three instalments.
      • 2025 Update: Union Cabinet raised PMKSY’s total outlay to ₹6,520 crore, with ₹1,000 crore for 50 irradiation units under ICCVAI.
    • Eligibility Conditions: Applicants must have net worth ≥ 1.5× the grant (general areas) or equal to the grant (special areas). Each project must integrate Farm-Level Infrastructure with a Distribution Hub and/or refrigerated transport.
    • Implementation Progress:
      • 395 projects approved, 291 operational.
      • Created 25.52 LMT preservation capacity and 114.66 LMT processing capacity.
      • Generated 1.74 lakh jobs nationwide.

    Complementary Government Initiatives:

    • Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): Credit-linked subsidy for cold storages up to 5,000 MT.
    • National Horticulture Board (NHB): Promotes Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storages for horticulture.
    • Operation Greens (PMKSY):  Stabilises supply chains for fruits, vegetables, and shrimp.
    • Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF): 3% interest subvention on loans up to ₹2 crore for cold chain and processing units.
    • National Centre for Cold-chain Development (NCCD): Think tank for standards, training, and best practices in cold logistics.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to the sectors of the Indian economy, consider the following pairs: Economic activity Sector

    1. Storage of agricultural produce Secondary

    2. Dairy farm Primary

    3. Mineral exploration Tertiary

    4. Weaving cloth Secondary

    How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF)

    Why in the News?

    In October 2025, seven countries, Cook Islands, Madagascar, Mexico, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Uganda, secured $5.8 million in grants from the Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) to promote nature-friendly agriculture.

    What is Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF)?

    • Objective: To assist developing nations in implementing the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), aimed at halting biodiversity loss by 2030 and restoring ecosystems by 2050.
    • Overview: Established in 2021 during Part 1 of COP-15 at Kunming, China, under China’s presidency of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
    • Initial Contribution: China pledged 1.5 billion yuan (~USD 200 million) as seed funding.
    • Administration: Managed by China’s Ministry of Ecology & Environment, UN Environment Programme (UNEP), and the CBD Secretariat; functions as a Multi-Partner Trust Fund with UNDP and others.
    • Focus Areas:
      • Support for National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
      • Ecosystem restoration, invasive-species control, and sustainable agriculture.
      • Empowerment of Indigenous Peoples and local communities in conservation.
    • 2025 Allocation: Released USD 5.8 million via FAO to Cook Islands, Madagascar, Mexico, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Türkiye, and Uganda for biodiversity-linked agriculture and resilience projects.
    • Alignment: Advances KMGBF Target 19 (mobilising USD 200 billion per year by 2030) and helps bridge the USD 700 billion annual global biodiversity finance gap.
    • Global Significance: Serves as a cornerstone of biodiversity finance, complementing the GEF, Green Climate Fund, and Cali Fund (2025) to mobilise global conservation resources.

    India and the KBF:

    • Funding Status: As of 2025, India has not yet received direct KBF funding but remains eligible as a biodiversity-rich developing country and active CBD Party.
    • National Alignment: India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), National Biodiversity Mission, and Green India Mission align with KBF priorities, especially ecosystem restoration, biodiversity mainstreaming, and community participation.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. In India, the Biodiversity Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

    2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining acces and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Revisions in the Consumer Price Index (CPI)

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has proposed major revisions in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) methodology, to be implemented in the new retail inflation series from February 2026.

    About the Consumer Price Index (CPI):

    • Overview: The CPI measures the average change over time in the prices paid by consumers for a fixed basket of goods and services typically consumed by households.
    • Purpose: It tracks retail inflation showing how the purchasing power of money changes due to price variations, and how living costs evolve across different population groups.
    • Components:
      • Food and Beverages: Cereals, pulses, vegetables, milk, meat, fish, sugar, and beverages.
      • Housing: Rent paid for rented houses and imputed rent for self-occupied dwellings.
      • Clothing and Footwear: Garments, textiles, footwear, and related goods.
      • Fuel and Light: LPG, kerosene, electricity, firewood, and other fuels.
      • Miscellaneous: Transport, communication, education, health, recreation, personal care, and other services.
    • Publishing Authority: The CPI is compiled and released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) through the National Statistical Office (NSO) every month.
    • Current Base Year: 2012, which is being revised to 2024 to reflect more recent household consumption patterns captured in the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2023–24.
    • Coverage: Separate indices are compiled for Rural, Urban, and Combined (Rural + Urban) sectors to reflect diverse consumption and price patterns.
    • Types of CPI in India:
      1. CPI for Industrial Workers (CPI-IW): Base year 2016; tracks inflation for organized industrial workers; used for Dearness Allowance (DA) revisions.
      2. CPI for Agricultural Labourers (CPI-AL): Base year 1986–87; measures price changes faced by agricultural labourers.
      3. CPI for Rural Labourers (CPI-RL): Base year 1986–87; monitors inflation for rural households dependent on wage labour.
      4. CPI (Urban), CPI (Rural), and CPI (Combined): Base year 2012; represents national-level retail inflation and is the official measure of inflation in India.
    • Weightage: The relative importance (weight) of each component reflects its share in total household expenditure, for instance, food and beverages hold over 45%, while housing has 21.67% in urban CPI and 10.07% in all-India CPI.
    • Use and Importance:
      • Inflation Targeting: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) uses CPI as the anchor for its Monetary Policy Framework, aiming for 4% ± 2% inflation.
      • Wage & Pension Adjustments: CPI is used to revise wages, pensions, and dearness allowances in both government and industrial sectors.
      • Policy Planning: It provides essential inputs for economic policy, poverty analysis, and fiscal decisions.
      • Economic Indicator: Serves as the primary indicator of cost of living, influencing interest rate decisions, tax indexation, and social welfare adjustments.

    Revisions in the Consumer Price Index (CPI)

    Revisions in the CPI:

    • Monthly Rent Data: Collection every month for both rural & urban areas, replacing earlier six-monthly urban series.
    • Inclusion of Rural Housing: Covers imputed rents for owner-occupied rural dwellings.
    • Exclusion of Employer Housing: Removes HRA-based distortions from government/PSU quarters.
    • Expanded Sampling & IMF Alignment: Broader coverage, discontinuation of panel imputation, adoption of IMF-recommended rent index computation.
    • Weight Revision: Recalibrates housing share (currently 21.67 % urban; 10.07 % all-India) using new expenditure data.
    • Transparency: MoSPI discussion papers (2024-25) invite feedback on PDS treatment, housing index, and base methodology.

    Rationale & Impact:

    • Captures Post-Pandemic Rent Surge overlooked by the 2012 base.
    • Addresses Rural Under-coverage for two-thirds of India’s population.
    • Enhances RBI’s Inflation Targeting through more accurate rent data.
    • Aligns with Global Standards, strengthening CPI’s credibility as a comprehensive welfare and policy indicator.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
    1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
    2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does.
    3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] GI Tagged Indi and Puliyankudi Limes 

    Why in the News?

    The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has facilitated India’s first air export of GI-tagged Indi Lime and Puliyankudi Lime to the UK.

    [pib] GI Tagged Indi and Puliyankudi Limes 

    About Indi Lime:

    • Origin: Cultivated predominantly in Vijayapura district, Karnataka.
    • GI Tag: Granted in 2023, becoming India’s second lime variety to obtain a GI certification after the Assam Lemon.
    • Characteristics:
      • Renowned for its zesty aroma, balanced acidity, high juice yield, and thin rind.
      • Possesses a distinctive tangy-sweet flavor and rich oil content that enhances its culinary and medicinal appeal.
    • Cultivation Conditions:
      • Thrives in semi-arid climates and black cotton soils of northern Karnataka.
      • Largely cultivated using traditional, organic farming practices.
    • Economic Importance:
      • Vijayapura district contributes around 58% of Karnataka’s total lime production.
      • Widely used in food, traditional medicine, and cultural practices, reflecting the region’s agricultural heritage.

    About Puliyankudi Lime:

    • Origin: Cultivated in Puliyankudi (Tenkasi district), Tamil Nadu, often termed the “Lemon City of Tamil Nadu.”
    • GI Tag: Officially registered in April 2025.
    • Characteristics:
      • The Kadayam variety is noted for its thin peel, strong acidity, high juice content (~55%), and ascorbic acid levels (34.3 mg/100g).
      • Exhibits an intense aroma and distinct tanginess, making it highly prized in both domestic and international markets.
    • Cultivation Conditions:
      • Grown in red loamy soils under tropical climatic conditions, maintaining traditional horticultural methods.
    • Significance: A rich source of vitamin C and antioxidants, supporting immunity, digestion, and metabolic health.
    [UPSC 2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?

    1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees 2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma 3. Tirupathi Laddu

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3