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GS Paper: GS3

  • Pyrite

    Why in the News?

    Scientists have discovered the oldest known evidence of fire making by prehistoric humans in England. The findings include heated clay, heat shattered flint handaxes and pieces of iron pyrite, which can generate sparks when struck against flint.

    About Pyrite

    • Pyrite is a brass yellow mineral with a bright metallic lustre.
       • Chemical composition: Iron sulfide (FeS₂).
       • It is the most common sulfide mineral found on Earth.
       • The name is derived from the Greek word pyr meaning fire, as pyrite emits sparks when struck by metal or flint.
       • Nodules of pyrite found in prehistoric burial mounds suggest its early use in fire making.
       • Commonly known as “Fool’s Gold” due to its superficial resemblance to gold.

    Distinguishing Pyrite from Gold

    • Pyrite is much lighter than gold.
       • It is harder than gold and cannot be scratched with a fingernail or a pocket knife.
       • Gold is soft, malleable and can be easily scratched.

    Occurrence

    • Found worldwide in diverse geological settings.
       • Occurs in sedimentary deposits, hydrothermal veins and as a constituent of metamorphic rocks.

    Uses of Pyrite

    • Source of iron and sulfur.
       • Used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid.
       • Used to produce iron sulfate.
       • Iron sulfate applications include nutritional supplements, ink, lawn conditioner, water treatment and flocculation, and moss control.
       • Iron sulfate derived from pyrite is used in the treatment of iron deficiency anemia.
       • Some varieties contain microscopic gold and can be mined as a gold ore.

    Prelims Pointer

    • Pyrite’s ability to produce sparks made it an important material for early human fire technology.
    Ilmenite and rutile, abundantly available in certain coastal tracts of India, are rich sources of which one of the following? (2023)

    (a) Aluminium 

    (b) Copper 

    (c) Iron 

    (d) Titanium

  • New Ramsar Sites in India

    Why in the News?

    Siliserh Lake in Rajasthan and Kopra Jalashay in Chhattisgarh have been designated as Ramsar Sites, recognising their international importance as wetlands.

    Siliserh Lake

    Location: Alwar district, Rajasthan
     Type: Human made lake
     Setting: Located within the buffer zone of Sariska Tiger Reserve
     History: Constructed in 1845 by Maharaja Vinay Singh to supply drinking water to Alwar city
     Climate Zone: Semi arid region
     Ecological Significance:
     • Important water source in a dry landscape
     • Supports diverse wetland and terrestrial biodiversity

    Fauna:

    • Around 149 bird species
     • 17 mammal species
     • Vulnerable species: River tern
     • Endangered species: Tiger
     • Supports more than 1 percent of the biogeographic population of Black Stork (Ciconia nigra)

    Kopra Jalashay

    Location: Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh
     Type: Reservoir
     River System: Upper catchment of the Mahanadi River
     Hydrological Importance:
     • Strong hydrological and ecological connectivity
     • Creates a mosaic of wetland habitats

    Avifaunal Importance:

    • Supports over 60 migratory bird species
     • Used for nesting, feeding and as a stopover site

    Fauna:

    • Vulnerable species: Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga)
     • Endangered species: Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus)

    Ramsar Convention Key Point for Prelims

    • Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for conservation and wise use of wetlands
       • Adopted in 1971 at Ramsar, Iran
       • India is a contracting party since 1982
    If a wetland of international importance is brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply? (2014)

    (a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland as a result of human interference. 

    (b) The country in which the wetland is located should enact a law to prohibit any human activity within five kilometres from the edge of the wetland. 

    (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural practices and traditions of certain communities living in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diversity therein should not be destroyed. 

    (d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’

  • [13th December 2025] The Hindu OpED: The Indian Ocean as cradle of a new blue economy

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organizational, technical and procedural initiatives taken to improve the maritime security.

    Linkage: This question aligns with the article’s argument that maritime security now includes ocean governance, ecosystem degradation, and IUU fishing, beyond naval or territorial concerns.It reflects the article’s “security through sustainability” lens.

    Introduction

    The Indian Ocean has historically shaped global trade, civilizations, and maritime norms. India’s early advocacy during the UNCLOS negotiations to treat areas beyond national jurisdiction as the “common heritage of mankind” laid the normative foundation for today’s ocean governance debates. Half a century later, climate change, biodiversity loss, and unregulated exploitation have intensified pressures on marine ecosystems. The article argues that India now carries both opportunity and responsibility to lead a new Blue Economy paradigm rooted in stewardship, resilience, and inclusive growth.

    Why in the News?

    The article gains significance amid the BBNJ Agreement (2023), renewed focus on Blue Economy financing, and India’s expanding role in Indian Ocean governance following UNCLOS negotiations and recent UN Ocean Conferences. For the first time, the Indian Ocean is being projected not merely as a geopolitical theatre but as a laboratory for sustainability, climate resilience, and equitable growth. This marks a shift from security-centric maritime approaches toward ecosystem-based ocean governance. 

    Reimagining the Indian Ocean Blue Economy

    Normative Foundations of India’s Ocean Vision

    1. Common Heritage Principle: Positions the Indian Ocean as a shared global commons rather than a contested geopolitical space.
    2. Continuity of Leadership: Builds on India’s early UNCLOS advocacy for equity and fairness in ocean governance.
    3. Shift in Maritime Thinking: Reframes oceans from extractive zones to sustainability laboratories.

    What is the Blue Economy?

    1. Sustainable Ocean-Based Economic Model: Integrates economic use of ocean resources with long-term conservation of marine ecosystems.
    2. Human-Ocean Balance: Aligns livelihoods, trade, and development with ecological thresholds and regeneration capacity.
    3. Global Commons Perspective: Treats oceans as shared resources requiring collective governance rather than unilateral exploitation.

    How the Blue Economy Differs from Past Interpretations

    From Extraction to Stewardship

    1. Earlier Approach: Focused on maximum extraction of fisheries, offshore hydrocarbons, and seabed minerals.
    2. Blue Economy Shift: Prioritises ecosystem health, biodiversity protection, and regulated resource use.

    From Sectoral Growth to Integrated Planning

    1. Earlier Approach: Treated shipping, fishing, energy, and tourism as isolated sectors.
    2. Blue Economy Shift: Integrates marine sectors through ecosystem-based and spatial planning frameworks.

    From Security-Centric Oceans to Sustainability-Centric Oceans

    1. Earlier Approach: Viewed oceans primarily as strategic spaces for naval dominance and sea-lane protection.
    2. Blue Economy Shift: Redefines maritime security to include climate resilience, coastal livelihoods, and ocean health.

    From Short-Term Gains to Intergenerational Equity

    1. Earlier Approach: Emphasised immediate economic returns with limited concern for long-term impacts.
    2. Blue Economy Shift: Embeds intergenerational equity and long-term resilience into ocean governance.

    From National Control to Cooperative Governance

    1. Earlier Approach: Prioritised sovereign exploitation within EEZs.
    2. Blue Economy Shift: Strengthens multilateralism through UNCLOS, BBNJ Agreement, and regional cooperation mechanisms.

    Why This Shift Matters for India and the Indian Ocean?

    1. Climate Vulnerability: Indian Ocean region faces disproportionate exposure to sea-level rise and extreme weather.
    2. Livelihood Dependence: Millions depend on marine resources for food security and employment.
    3. Strategic Leadership: Enables India to lead through norms, sustainability, and inclusive regional partnerships rather than power projection.

    Stewardship as the First Pillar

    1. Ecosystem Restoration: Prioritises biodiversity protection, habitat conservation, and sustainable fisheries management.
    2. Regulated Resource Use: Counters illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing undermining livelihoods and food security.
    3. Shared Ocean Ethic: Positions India as a trustee rather than a dominant maritime power.

    Resilience in a Climate-Stressed Ocean Basin

    1. Climate Vulnerability: Indian Ocean houses over one-third of humanity and includes some of the most climate-exposed regions.
    2. Adaptation Imperative: Strengthens preparedness against sea-level rise, extreme weather, and ecosystem collapse.
    3. Regional Cooperation: Supports small island developing states through technology transfer and capacity building.

    Inclusive Growth and the Blue Economy

    1. Equitable Prosperity: Extends economic benefits to all littoral states, not just major powers.
    2. Green Sectors: Advances green shipping, offshore renewable energy, and sustainable marine biotechnology.
    3. Livelihood Protection: Links marine conservation with coastal employment and social stability.

    Financing the Blue Economy Transition

    1. Global Financial Momentum: Finance in Common Ocean Coalition mobilised $8.7 billion in commitments.
    2. Public-Private Synergy: Balances public pledges ($5.7 billion) and private investment ($2.5 billion).
    3. Institutional Architecture: Converts ocean pledges into implementable projects through MDBs and philanthropy.

    Security Through Sustainability

    1. Expanded Security Concept: Redefines maritime security beyond navigation and sea lanes.
    2. Ecosystem-Security Link: Addresses IUU fishing, coral degradation, and coastal erosion as security threats.
    3. SAGAR Doctrine: Anchors India’s maritime strategy in “Security and Growth for All in the Region.”

    Multilateralism and Global Ocean Governance

    1. BBNJ Agreement: Establishes governance for biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction.
    2. UNCLOS Continuity: Reinforces rule-based maritime order.
    3. Equity Focus: Integrates climate finance, technology access, and capacity building for developing states.

    India’s Diplomatic Responsibility in the IOR

    1. Leadership with Restraint: Emphasises stewardship over dominance.
    2. Consultative Approach: Aligns India’s diplomacy with shared prosperity.
    3. Global Messaging: Positions the Indian Ocean as a model for cooperative global commons governance.

    Conclusion

    The Indian Ocean is no longer merely a strategic maritime space but a critical global commons where climate stress, ecological degradation, and development aspirations intersect. India’s approach, grounded in stewardship, sustainability, and inclusive growth, positions the Blue Economy as a pathway to secure oceans through resilient ecosystems and cooperative governance. By aligning UNCLOS principles, the BBNJ framework, and the SAGAR vision, the article underscores that the future stability of the Indian Ocean and its prosperity will depend on security rooted in sustainability rather than dominance.

  • India is focusing on PM10 but PM 2.5 is the real threat

    Introduction

    Air pollution in India is no longer episodic or seasonal; it is a structural public health emergency. While global best practices increasingly rely on health-based air quality standards, India’s regulatory architecture continues to emphasise coarser particulate matter (PM10) due to administrative convenience and visible enforcement outcomes. This regulatory bias weakens India’s ability to reduce disease burden, undermines scientific policymaking, and distorts progress assessment under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

    Why in the News?

    A new comparative study by the Sustainable Futures Collaborative (SFC) highlights that India’s air pollution control framework remains disproportionately focused on PM10, while PM2.5, responsible for deeper health damage. remains inadequately addressed. The report is significant because it systematically contrasts India’s regulatory pathway with countries such as China, Mexico, Brazil, Poland, South Korea, and Germany, revealing a structural mismatch between India’s monitoring priorities and the actual toxicity of pollutants. 

    The Scientific Hierarchy of Harm in Particulate Matter

    1. PM2.5 Toxicity: Penetrates deep into the lungs and bloodstream, causing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
    2. PM10 Characteristics: Larger particles with lower systemic penetration and comparatively lesser health impact.
    3. Policy Mismatch: Regulatory attention remains fixed on PM10 despite PM2.5 being the primary health risk.
    4. Outcome: Misalignment between pollution control metrics and actual disease burden.

    Regulatory Bias Towards PM10 in India

    1. Monitoring Focus: NCAP progress is measured primarily through PM10 reductions.
    2. Administrative Ease: PM10 reductions are easier to demonstrate through visible actions like road sweeping and construction controls.
    3. Institutional Incentives: City authorities prefer pollutants that show quicker compliance outcomes.
    4. Policy Consequence: PM2.5 mitigation receives limited planning, funding, and enforcement priority.

    Geography and Urban Form as Pollution Amplifiers

    1. Delhi’s Topography: Located on a plateau surrounded by mountains, restricting pollutant dispersion.
    2. Atmospheric Stagnation: Winter inversion traps pollutants close to the ground.
    3. Regional Inflows: Pollutants from surrounding regions add to local emissions.
    4. Result: Structural accumulation of PM2.5 beyond city-level control measures.

    International Regulatory Pathways Compared

    1. China: Transitioned from PM10 to PM2.5 standards after public health pressure; implemented national emission standards and fuel quality upgrades.
    2. Mexico: Introduced health-based air quality standards following judicial and civil society intervention.
    3. Poland: Adopted EU emission norms after civil resistance and local political change.
    4. Common Feature: Strong national regulation, judicial pressure, and health-based standards.
    5. Indian Contrast: Fragmented authority, weak enforcement, and delayed regulatory evolution.

    Institutional Capacity Constraints in India

    1. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Resource-poor and understaffed.
    2. Monitoring Load: Engineers responsible for air, water, and waste compliance simultaneously.
    3. Outsourcing Dependence: Compliance monitoring outsourced to private agencies, creating conflicts of interest.
    4. Regulatory Gap: Limited accountability and weak on-ground enforcement.

    Monitoring Deficit and Data Blindness

    1. Ground Monitoring: Insufficient real-time PM2.5 monitoring infrastructure.
    2. Compliance Illusion: Cities meet PM10 reduction targets while PM2.5 levels remain hazardous.
    3. NCAP Limitation: PM2.5 reduction not central to non-attainment city evaluation.
    4. Outcome: Policy success measured through incomplete indicators.

    Policy Instruments and Their Limitations

    1. Smog Guns: Symbolic interventions with minimal impact on PM2.5.
    2. Construction Controls: Effective for PM10, marginal for PM2.5.
    3. Road Dust Management: Visibility-driven policy with limited health outcomes.
    4. Structural Failure: Absence of emission source targeting for fine particulates.

    Conclusion

    India’s air pollution strategy suffers not from lack of intent, but from misaligned priorities and weak institutional design. By privileging PM10 over PM2.5, policymakers risk managing visibility rather than mortality. Without a decisive shift towards health-based air quality standards, strengthened monitoring capacity, and PM2.5-centric regulation, India’s pollution control efforts will continue to underperform despite visible compliance gains.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the key point of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines [AQGs] recently released by the World Health Organisation [WHO].How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards ?

    Linkage: This PYQ directly aligns with the article’s core argument that India’s NCAP remains PM10-centric, whereas WHO AQGs prioritise PM2.5 due to higher health risks. The article provides analytical grounding to argue why India’s air quality framework requires a shift to health-based PM2.5 standards rather than visibility-based PM10 compliance.

  • Agentic AI  

    Why in the News?

    Microsoft Chairman and CEO Satya Nadella recently noted that India is witnessing strong momentum in the adoption and deployment of artificial intelligence, particularly agentic AI applications.

    About Agentic AI

    Agentic AI is an advanced form of artificial intelligence that emphasises autonomous decision-making and action. It is designed to act independently in a goal driven manner with minimal human intervention.

    Core Concept

    • Based on AI agents that simulate human-like decision making
     • Capable of setting goals, planning steps, and executing tasks on its own
     • Goes beyond traditional AI systems that mainly respond to prompts or analyse data

    Prelims Pointers

    • Agentic AI emphasizes autonomy and goal orientation
    • Uses large language models as its reasoning engine
    • Key stages include perception, reasoning, planning, action, and reflection
    • Represents an evolution beyond prompt based AI systems
    With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (2020)

    (1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units

    (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs

    (3) Disease diagnosis

    (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion

    (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • Diving Support Craft A20

    Why in the news?

    The Indian Navy is set to commission Diving Support Craft (DSC) A20 at Kochi under the Southern Naval Command, marking a key milestone in indigenous naval capability.

    About Diving Support Craft A20

    • First vessel of the indigenously designed and constructed Diving Support Craft class
     • Lead ship in a series of five DSCs
     • Built by M s Titagarh Rail Systems Limited, Kolkata
     • Designed for a wide range of diving and underwater missions in coastal waters

    Prelims Pointers

    • DSC A20 is an indigenously built naval auxiliary vessel
    • Builder: Titagarh Rail Systems Limited
    • Hull type: Catamaran
    • Command: Southern Naval Command
    • Focus areas include diving operations, underwater missions, and salvage support
    Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently? (2016)

    (a) Amphibious warfare ship 

    (b) Nuclear-powered submarine 

    (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel 

    (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

  • Pallas’s Gull 

    Why in the News?

    The rare migratory Pallas’s Gull was recently sighted at Udhwa Bird Sanctuary in Jharkhand, marking its return after nearly a decade.

    About Pallas’s Gull

    • Also known as the Great Black headed Gull
     • One of the largest gull species in the world
     • World’s largest black headed gull and third largest gull overall
     • Family: Laridae
     • Scientific name: Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus

    Conservation Status: IUCN Red List: Least Concern

    Distribution and Migration

    • Breeds in colonies across marshes and islands of southern Russia, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia
     • Migratory species
     • Winters in the Mediterranean region, Arabian Peninsula, and Indian subcontinent.

    Prelims Pointers

    • Pallas’s Gull is a migratory wetland dependent bird
    • Associated with Central Asian Flyway
    • Udhwa is Jharkhand’s only bird sanctuary and a Ramsar Site
    • Species belongs to the Laridae family
    Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that supports a rich biodiversity? (2015)

    (a) Bhitarkanika National Park 

    (b) Keibul Lamjao National Park 

    (c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park 

    (d) Sultanpur National Park

  • Savings shift reshapes India’s markets

    Introduction

    India’s markets are being reshaped by a decisive movement from volatile foreign capital to sticky domestic savings. Mutual funds, SIPs, and household equity ownership are expanding rapidly, providing stability. But they also reveal problems linked to market asymmetry, inexperienced investors, uneven access, promoter dominance, and structural vulnerabilities. The issue is now central to India’s economic trajectory as the country moves toward Viksit Bharat 2047.

    Why in the news?

    India’s equity markets have reached a turning point as domestic household savings now overshadow foreign institutional flows, marking the largest shift in market behaviour in years. SIPs continue hitting record highs, household equity ownership has reached ₹2.6 lakh crore, and over 1 lakh crore raised this fiscal through IPOs. Yet this boom masks rising risks, making it a defining moment for investor protection and financial governance.

    How is domestic money reshaping India’s markets?

    1. Rise of domestic inflows: Household savings, SIPs, and direct retail investments now comprise nearly 19% of the market, rising consistently even as FPI flows decline.
    2. Record equity ownership: Households’ net equity wealth grew to ₹2.6 lakh crore, reducing dependence on volatile foreign capital.
    3. Lower FPI share: FPI ownership has fallen to a 15-month low, shifting market stability foundations from external to internal investors.
    4. Policy spillover: Lower inflation, RBI’s monetary stance, and reduced FPI volatility allow India to prioritise consumption-led growth over external vulnerability.

    What explains the boom in India’s primary markets?

    1. Strong domestic confidence: Primary market fundraising crossed ₹1 lakh crore, aligning with new retail enthusiasm.
    2. High retail participation: Retail share of IPO applications rose to over 7%, showing deeper democratization of access.
    3. High valuation appetite: Companies like Lenskart and Nykaa drew investors despite expensive valuations.
    4. Promoter behaviour as signal: Promoter holdings in NIFTY 50 at a 23-year low of 40%, raising questions on whether selling reflects real capital raising or opportunistic exits.

    Why are structural risks rising despite more participation?

    1. Performance problem: More activity does not guarantee better returns, especially for new investors entering during market highs.
    2. Unequal outcomes: Loss concentration among inexperienced investors undermines long-term trust.
    3. Access asymmetry: Limited access to low-cost passive funds, low indexing literacy, and inadequate disclosures weaken investor protection.
    4. Volatility exposure: New investors face market corrections without adequate safeguards or financial education.

    What issues stem from unequal participation and distribution?

    1. Wealth concentration: Financial returns skewed toward higher-income groups widen inequality.
    2. Market capture: A small segment of active managers disproportionately influences market outcomes.
    3. IPO valuation asymmetry: Over-enthusiasm coupled with limited financial capability poses downside risks to retail wealth.
    4. Regional inequality: Lack of location-specific strategies excludes women and underrepresented groups from financial markets.

    How can India strengthen investor protection and market stability?

    1. Fixing access asymmetry: Better disclosure norms, low-fee passive investing, and indexing education are essential.
    2. Regulatory nudges: Incentivising low-cost funds and transparent product design protects everyday investors.
    3. Deep structural reforms:
      1. Strengthening promoter governance
      2. Ensuring capital raising reflects business expansion
      3. Disincentivising opportunistic disinvestment
    4. Targeted inclusion: Gender- and region-specific interventions can bridge participation gaps and widen financial deepening.

    Conclusion

    India’s market shift toward domestic savings presents both opportunity and risk. Stability rises when markets rely less on foreign capital, but without strong investor protection, transparency, and inclusive access, democratization may turn into vulnerability. For India’s financial deepening and long-term economic resilience, governance reforms, structured investor education, and asymmetry correction must accompany rising participation.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] Among several factors for India’s potential growth, the savings rate is the most effective one. Do you agree? What are the other factors available for growth potential? 

    Linkage: Rising domestic household savings reshaping India’s capital markets directly connects to the role of savings in economic growth, stability, and financial deepening.

  • Charaichung Festival at Majuli  

    Why in the News?

    Assam’s Majuli island hosted the second edition of the Charaichung Festival, aimed at reviving Asia’s first protected Royal Bird Sanctuary, Charaichung, established in 1633 AD.

    About Charaichung Sanctuary

    • Established in 1633 AD by Ahom King Swargadeu Pratap Singha (Burha Roja).
    • Considered Asia’s first protected royal bird sanctuary.
    • Holds a 392-year-old legacy.
    • Once thriving, the sanctuary has deteriorated and now requires active conservation.
    • Home to around 150 species of indigenous and migratory birds.

    About the Charaichung Festival

    • Held from December 7 to 10, 2025, at Majuli.
    • Organised by Majuli Sahitya and local communities.
    • Objective:
       • Revive Charaichung sanctuary
       • Strengthen bird conservation
       • Promote Majuli as a global tourism destination
    • Includes a special forest conservation exhibition showcasing biodiversity protection efforts.

    Significance of Majuli

    • Recognised as the world’s largest river island.
    • One of India’s important bird habitats, attracting domestic and international nature enthusiasts.
    • Rich in biodiversity and cultural heritage.
    Which of the following National Parks is unique in being a swamp with floating vegetation that supports a rich biodiversity? (2015)

    (a) Bhitarkanika National Park 

    (b) Keibul Lamjao National Park 

    (c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park 

    (d) Sultanpur National Park

  • Mass Mortality of Goniopora Corals at One Tree Reef  

    Why in the News?

    A new study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B (December 10, 2025) reports unprecedented coral bleaching and mortality at One Tree Reef (OTR) in the southern Great Barrier Reef, driven by extreme heat and rapid spread of black band disease (BBD).

    Background

    • Coral reefs have shaped Earth’s climate for 250 million years.
    • OTR has not witnessed bleaching of this severity for decades.
    • The impacted species, Goniopora (flowerpot or daisy corals), typically live in lagoons and turbid reefs and are known for thermal tolerance, making their mass mortality alarming.

    Why Black Band Disease Spread at OTR

    • BBD is common in the Caribbean but historically rare in the southern Great Barrier Reef.
    • OTR is offshore and not affected by major nutrient pollution — usually a known trigger.
    • Other coral genera at OTR that bleached did not develop BBD.
    • Northern Great Barrier Reef surveys (2024) showed very low incidence (1–2 percent).
    Consider the following statements: (2018)

    1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters. 

    2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines. 

    3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3