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  • RBI’s Gold Reserve exceeds $100 billion

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reported that India’s gold reserves surpassed $100 billion for the first time in history, reaching $102.365 billion in the week ending October 10, 2025.

    India’s Gold Reserves and Composition (2025):

    • Total Holdings: As of March 31, 2025, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) held approximately 879.58 metric tonnes of gold.
    • Valuation Milestone: In October 2025, the value of India’s gold reserves crossed USD 100 billion, reaching about USD 102.36 billion, the highest in history.
    • Forex Share: Gold’s share in India’s total foreign exchange reserves rose to 14.7 %, the highest since 1996–97, driven by valuation gains and steady accumulation.
    • Yearly Rise: Early in 2025, gold comprised 12.5 % of reserves, indicating a sharp increase through the year amid global market volatility.
    • Repatriation Move: During FY 2024–25, the RBI repatriated 100.32 tonnes of gold from overseas vaults to India, expanding domestic holdings.

    Distribution of Gold Holdings (March 2025):

    • Domestic Holdings: About 200 metric tonnes held within India.
    • Overseas Holdings: Around 367 metric tonnes stored abroad.
    • Deposits with Foreign Institutions: Approximately 19 metric tonnes.
    • Trend Evolution: Gold share in reserves rose from 5.9 % (2021) to 11.7 % (2025) due to strategic diversification and valuation gains.

    What are Gold Reserves?

    • A gold reserve is the gold held by a country’s central bank, acting as a backup for financial promises and a store of value.
    • India, like other nations, stores some of its gold reserves in foreign vaults to spread out risk and facilitate international trading.
    • India’s Gold Reserves:
      • As of the end of March 2024, the RBI held 822.10 tonnes of gold, with 408.31 tonnes stored domestically.
      • The share of gold in the total forex of India is around 7-8% as of 2023.

    Where does the RBI store its gold?

    • India’s gold reserves are primarily stored in the Bank of England, which is known for its stringent security protocols.
    • The RBI also stores a portion of its gold reserves at the:
      1. Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, and the
      2. Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the United States.
    During India’s foreign exchange crisis in 1990-91, the country pledged some of its gold reserves to the Bank of England to secure a $405 million loan, according to reports.

    Even though the loan was paid back by November 1991, India decided to keep the gold in the UK for convenience.

    Why does the RBI store its gold in foreign banks?

    • Convenience: Storing gold overseas makes it easier for India to trade, engage in swaps and earn returns.
    • Averting Risks: There are risks involved, especially during times of geopolitical tensions and war.
      • The recent freezing of Russian assets by Western nations has raised worries about the safety of assets kept abroad and the RBI decision to shift a portion of the gold reserve to India could be prompted by these concerns.
    • Stable Prices: Unlike fiat currencies, which can be subject to inflation or devaluation due to various economic factors, the value of gold tends to be relatively stable over time, which makes it an attractive asset for central banks to hold as a reserve.

    Benefits Offered by Gold Reserves

    • Control domestic gold prices: With its big stash of gold, the RBI can help control local gold prices by using some of it in India. Last financial year, the RBI added about 27.47 tonnes of gold to the total reserve, bringing it to 794.63 tonnes.
    • Security buffer: The increased gold reserve works as a hedge against any financial crisis and to take measures to control inflation as well as currency devaluation.
    [UPSC 2015] The problem of international liquidity is related to the non-availability of:

    (a) Goods and services

    (b) Gold and silver

    (c) Dollars and other hard currencies *

    (d) Exportable surplus

     

  • Blackbuck Re-Introduction in Chhattisgarh

    Why in the News?

    Chhattisgarh launched a five-year Blackbuck Reintroduction Plan (2021–2026) at Barnawapara Wildlife Sanctuary to revive the species after 50 years of local extinction.

    Blackbucks have vanished from Chhattisgarh by the 1970s, primarily due to poaching, habitat loss, and grassland encroachment.

    About the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra):

    • Habitat: Native to India and Nepal, commonly found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu.
    • Physical Traits: Medium-sized antelope with males having spiral horns and black coats; known as the fastest land mammal in India.
    • Behaviour: Diurnal grazer that thrives in open plains and grasslands.
    • Ecological Role: Serves as an indicator species for grassland ecosystem health.
    • State Animal: Designated as the State Animal of Punjab, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Cultural Symbolism: Represents purity in Hinduism and good fortune in Buddhism.
    • Legal Protection:
      • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.
      • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.
      • CITES: Appendix III.
    [UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?

    Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger. *

    (b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction.

    (c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.

    (d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.

     

  • [17th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Ensure safeguards for India’s carbon market

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and Clean Development Mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.

    Linkage: The article directly aligns with this PYQ as it examines how India can sustain carbon credit mechanisms while ensuring justice and inclusivity in its domestic carbon market. It stresses that ethical safeguards and equitable benefit-sharing are essential to reconcile climate finance with India’s growth needs.

    Mentor’s Comment

    In an era when climate markets are rapidly gaining traction, India’s push to create its own carbon credit trading system represents a major step towards balancing growth and sustainability. However, as global experiences reveal, the promise of carbon markets often hides complex questions of equity, consent, and justice. This article examines how India can build a just, transparent, and credible carbon market, drawing lessons from global failures and aligning with its developmental and environmental priorities.

    Why in the News

    India is rolling out its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), a landmark move that will create a domestic carbon market for emission trading and offset generation. The scheme comes amid a global boom in carbon credits, with 175–180 million credits retired annually. Yet, recent controversies such as the Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project suspension by Verra (2023, 2025) have exposed how poorly governed carbon projects can violate community rights and reproduce colonial-style exploitation. This makes it crucial for India to institutionalize safeguards to prevent land alienation, ensure free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), and guarantee fair benefit-sharing, especially for farmers and marginalized communities who stand at the frontline of climate action.

    Introduction

    The industrial era’s growth model has pushed the Earth beyond its planetary boundaries, creating a need to decouple economic expansion from environmental degradation. For developing nations like India, degrowth is neither feasible nor just. The path forward lies in green growth, powered by cleaner energy, sustainable agriculture, and carbon crediting mechanisms that reward climate-positive behavior.

    However, as India builds its carbon market, it must ensure that climate justice is not sacrificed at the altar of climate finance.

    Growth and Sustainability, A Delicate Balance

    1. Decoupling growth from pollution: The industrial revolution model is no longer viable; India must grow while reducing emissions through renewable energy, micro-irrigation, and sustainable farming.
    2. Equitable development: Developing countries cannot afford “degrowth”; instead, they must innovate for green growth pathways that align prosperity with environmental protection.
    3. Indian examples: Rapid progress in solar energy and micro-irrigation exemplifies how growth and sustainability can reinforce each other.

    What Are Carbon Credits and Why Do They Matter?

    1. Definition: A carbon credit represents a certified reduction or removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs), measured in CO₂-equivalents.
    2. Generation sources: Created through mitigation activities like renewable energy or sequestration measures such as reforestation, agroforestry, and biochar.
    3. Global scenario: Annually, about 175–180 million credits are retired, with most originating from renewable energy and nature-based projects like REDD+.
    4. India’s initiative: The CCTS sets emission-intensity benchmarks for industries and includes voluntary offsetting mechanisms, managed through a national registry and trading platform.
    5. Emerging sectors: Draft methods for biomass, compressed biogas, and low-emission rice cultivation have already been released.

    The Promise and Peril of Carbon Projects

    1. Untapped agricultural potential: Despite 64 Indian projects listed under Verra, only four are registered, none have issued credits yet, largely due to weak farmer engagement and training gaps.
    2. Risk of exploitation: Without safeguards, carbon projects can mirror colonial plantation logic, especially as carbon prices rise.
    3. Global warning signs: The Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project (2012) faced suspension for bypassing consent and misrepresenting community participation.

    Violations documented:

    1. Lack of FPIC from indigenous communities.
    2. Projects implemented on unregistered community land.
    3. Enforced by armed rangers; governance opaque.
    4. 2025 Kenyan court judgment confirmed absence of public participation.
    5. Parallel cases: The Lake Turkana Wind Project fenced 150,000 acres of community land — cutting herders off from water and grazing.
      1. Lake Turkana is the world’s largest permanent desert lake and the world’s largest alkaline lake. It lies mostly in northwestern Kenya, with its northern end extending into Ethiopia.

    India’s Vulnerability: A Warning from Kenya

    1. Community impact: Carbon projects on village commons, forest fringes, or grazing lands can disrupt traditional livelihoods without proper consent.
    2. Caste and equity issues: Agricultural carbon projects have shown tendencies to exclude marginalized caste farmers, offering minimal benefits.
    3. Regulatory gap: India’s CCTS prioritizes procedural compliance but neglects land rights, FPIC, and benefit-sharing — leaving space for exploitation.
    4. Potential consequence: Without reforms, India risks replicating extractive climate models that alienate vulnerable communities.

    Towards a Fair and Transparent Carbon Market

    1. Balanced regulation: Overregulation deters genuine actors, while underregulation invites exploitation. India needs a “light but firm” regulatory model.

    Core safeguards needed:

    1. Transparency: Mandatory disclosure of benefit-sharing agreements.
    2. Community consent: Institutionalize FPIC before project initiation.
    3. Adaptive regulation: Policies that evolve through stakeholder consultations.
    4. Trust building: Incorporate third-party audits and grievance redressal.
    5. Justice as the foundation: Climate action must empower, not exploit, those sustaining the land.

    Conclusion

    India’s journey toward a low-carbon future cannot rely solely on markets, it must rest on ethics, equity, and empowerment. As the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) takes shape, the focus must move beyond procedural compliance to protecting land rights, ensuring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), and guaranteeing fair benefit-sharing with those who nurture the environment. Learning from global pitfalls, India has the opportunity to design a carbon market that is transparent, just, and inclusive, turning climate finance into a true instrument of climate justice and sustainable development. Only then can India demonstrate that growth and green governance are not competing goals, but two sides of the same equitable future.

  • Carbon Di-oxide Levels in 2024 set new records: WMO

    Why in the News?

    The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported that carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations reached a record 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking the highest annual increase (3.5 ppm) since global measurements began in 1957.

    About WMO Report 2025:

    • Publisher: Issued by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the UN specialised agency for weather, climate, and water systems.
    • Document: The 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin presents global atmospheric data for carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
    • Global Record: Confirms 2024 as the warmest year ever, with average temperatures 1.55 °C above pre-industrial (1850–1900) levels.
    • Context & Timing: Released ahead of COP30 (Belém, Brazil) to guide mitigation policies and national climate commitments.
    • Key Warning: Notes a record surge in CO₂ and the weakening of natural carbon sinks such as oceans and forests.

    Key Highlights about Greenhouse Gases:

    • Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Global mean reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, up 3.5 ppm from 2023, the largest annual rise since 1957. Concentrations are 152 % above pre-industrial (278.3 ppm); land and ocean sinks are declining in efficiency.
    • Methane (CH₄): Climbed to 1,942 ppb, 166 % above pre-industrial levels; ~60 % of emissions stem from livestock, fossil fuels, and rice cultivation.
    • Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Reached 338 ppb, 25 % higher than pre-industrial; emitted mainly from fertiliser use, biomass burning, and industry; the third major long-lived GHG.
    • Drivers of Increase: Human emissions, El Niño-linked droughts and wildfires, and reduced oceanic absorption, especially from the Amazon and southern Africa in 2024.

    Implications and Risks:

    • Warming Acceleration: CO₂ causes ~66 % of total warming and 79 % over the last decade; persistent buildup locks in long-term temperature rise.
    • Weakening Carbon Sinks: Warmer seas and drought-stricken lands absorb less CO₂, reinforcing a feedback loop of accumulation.
    • Extreme Events: Intensified heatwaves, floods, droughts, and wildfires signal proximity to irreversible tipping points like ice-sheet loss and coral die-off.
    [UPSC 2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs

    Options: (a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat.

    (b) the UV part of the solar radiation.

    (c) all the solar radiations.

    (d) the infrared part of the solar radiation. *

     

  • CG HC upholds cancellation of Forest Rights of Villagers

    Why in the News?

    The Chhattisgarh High Court has dismissed a petition challenging the cancellation of Community Forest Rights (CFRs) granted to villagers of Ghatbarra in the Hasdeo Arand forest, an area where Adani Enterprises–linked coal mines operate.

    Background of the Case:

    • Dispute Origin: The District-Level Committee (DLC) revoked CFR titles in 2016, citing that the area had already been diverted for mining in 2012 with MoEF clearance.
    • Petitioners’ Claim: The Hasdeo Arand Bachao Sangharsh Samiti argued that the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 provides no revocation clause and that villagers were not given a fair hearing before cancellation.
    • Court’s View: The High Court upheld the State’s decision, calling the 2013 CFR grant a “mistake” void ab initio, and legally cancellable.

    Key Judicial Findings:

    • Legality of Revocation: FRA lacks explicit revocation provision, but erroneous grants may be rectified; hence cancellation was valid.
    • Prior Approvals Prevail: 2012 MoEFCC mining clearance overrode subsequent CFR grants.
    • State Mineral Ownership: FRA does not affect the State’s control over minerals beneath forest land.
    • Locus Standi: Petitioners lacked standing after the Forest Rights Committee withdrew; no authorised village representation remained.
    • Suppression of Facts: Petitioners had earlier challenged land acquisition (case dismissed in 2022) but failed to disclose it.

    Significance:

    This ruling marks the first judicial interpretation of whether forest rights granted under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, despite the Act containing no explicit provision for cancellation.

    About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006:

    • Overview: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
    • Purpose: Enacted to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities deprived of traditional land and resource rights during colonial rule.
    • Core Objective: Ensures tenurial security, livelihood protection, and ecological stewardship of forest-dependent populations.
    • Beneficiaries: Covers Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.
    • Scope: Recognises both individual and collective rights over forest land and produce, extending to cultivation, habitation, and minor forest produce use.
    • Governance Principle: Empowers Gram Sabhas as the central authority for recognising and managing forest rights, reinforcing local autonomy.
    • Integration Goal: Aligns forest governance with tribal self-rule, complementing the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

    Key Features of the FRA:

    • Individual & Community Rights: Legal recognition for occupation, cultivation, residence, and use/sale of minor forest produce.
    • Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: Grants Gram Sabhas control to protect, regenerate, and manage community forests.
    • Habitat Rights: Protects Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and pre-agricultural forest communities.
    • Governance Structure: Multi-level verification, Gram Sabha → Sub-Divisional Committee → District-Level Committee, for rights adjudication.
    • Development Provisions: Allows limited diversion of forest land for public utilities with Gram Sabha consent.
    • Eviction Safeguard: No eviction until claims are fully processed and rights recognised.
    • Decentralised Oversight: Empowers Gram Sabha as the final decision-making authority on forest rights and management.
    • Legal Integration: Reinforces PESA’s participatory governance and community-led conservation in Scheduled Areas.
    [UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

    Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
    (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
    (c) Ministry of Rural Development
    (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs*

     

  • Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

    Why in the News?

    The SAIME Initiative, developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.

    What is SAIME Initiative?

    • Concept: A multi-stakeholder partnership model integrating shrimp aquaculture with mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans.
    • Implementing Agencies: Developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) with support from the Global Nature Fund (Germany), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS).
    • Purpose: Promotes climate-adaptive, conservation-linked livelihoods balancing ecological health with local economic growth.
    • Implementation: Covers 29.84 hectares with 42 fish farmers, achieving 100% rise in net profits through low-input, eco-friendly methods.
    • Target Group: Focuses on climate-vulnerable coastal communities, encouraging chemical-free shrimp farming to build coastal resilience.

    Core Features and Approach:

    • Ecosystem Integration: Maintains 5–30% mangrove cover within aquaculture ponds, directly linking productivity with ecosystem restoration.
    • Community Participation: Adopts a bottom-up co-management model, involving local farmers in planning, monitoring, and benefit-sharing.
    • Sustainable Practices: Utilises mangrove litter as shrimp feed, cutting chemical dependence and improving natural nutrient cycles.
    • Climate Resilience: Mitigates cyclones, salinity intrusion, and erosion, functioning as a nature-based adaptation system.
    • Economic Efficiency: Promotes low-input, high-yield aquaculture, enhancing smallholder profitability and resource efficiency.
    • Environmental Benefits: Supports carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and blue carbon economy objectives.
    • Global Alignment: Advances SDG-13 (Climate Action), SDG-14 (Life Below Water), and SDG-15 (Life on Land) through integrated coastal sustainability.

    About the Sundarbans:

    Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

    • Location: Situated in the South and North 24-Parganas districts of West Bengal, at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta, where the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers meet the Bay of Bengal.
    • Area: Currently spans 2,585.89 sq km, with an expansion proposal to 3,629.57 sq km, making it the largest mangrove forest in the world.
    • Status: Designated as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1987).
    • Topography: Characterised by a dense network of tidal creeks, estuaries, and 105 mangrove-covered islands, influenced by daily tidal inundation.
    • Flora and Fauna:
      • Flora: Dominated by Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Heritiera species.
      • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tiger, Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Irrawaddy Dolphin, King Cobra, and several endangered bird species.
    • Boundaries:
      • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal & Harinbhanga rivers)
      • South: Bay of Bengal
      • North/West: Matla, Bidya, and Gomdi rivers
    • Ecological Importance: Acts as a natural shield against cyclones and tsunamis, a carbon-rich ecosystem, and a vital nursery ground for fisheries — forming the ecological heart of India’s blue economy and coastal resilience framework.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

    Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves

    (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans

    (c) Naupada Swamp

    (d) Rann of Kutch*

     

  • Akash Missile System 

    Why in the News?

    India has pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil.

    akash

    About Akash Missile System:

    • Overview: Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
    • Type: A short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) designed to defend against aircraft, UAVs, and helicopters.
    • Operational Users: Inducted by both the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force, forming part of India’s layered air defence grid.
    • Purpose: Protects vital assets from aerial threats within the short to medium range segment.
    • Deployment Mode: Mounted on mobile launchers for rapid positioning, flexibility, and operational agility.
    • Comparison: Functionally comparable to Israel’s Iron Dome, though Akash focuses on intercepting larger aerial targets rather than small projectiles.

    Key Features:

    • Range & Altitude: Effective range 4.5–25 km; altitude coverage 100 m–20 km.
    • Engagement Capacity: A single firing unit can engage four targets simultaneously in both autonomous and group modes.
    • Speed & Accuracy: Capable of high-speed interceptions with radar-guided precision.
    • Propulsion & Dimensions: Length 5.87 m, diameter 350 mm, weight 710 kg; powered by solid-fuel propulsion.
    • Automation: Fully automated system ensuring rapid reaction time from detection to neutralization.
    • ECCM Capability: Built-in Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) to resist enemy jamming
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

  • [16th October 2025 ] The Hindu Op-ed: Navigating the global economic transformation

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order.

    Linkage: The question reflects India’s shift from moral leadership to strategic pragmatism in global affairs. The article builds on this, urging India to reclaim that leadership by shaping a fair, inclusive global economic order for the Global South.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The tectonic shifts in the world economy today echo the reshaping of global power equations. Salman Khurshid’s article presents a comprehensive analysis of how populist politics, state capitalism, and digital colonialism are reshaping the global economic order. This piece unpacks those arguments and situates them in a UPSC-relevant analytical frame, connecting them to India’s strategic choices and the future of the Global South.

    Introduction: Why in the News

    The world economy is undergoing a seismic transformation, marked by the U.S.–China great-power rivalry, reshaped trade flows, and the rise of state-driven capitalism. This shift is more than cyclical; it is structural, redefining the principles of globalisation itself. For the first time in decades, both economic and political systems are converging towards protectionism and state control, breaking away from the neoliberal consensus that defined the post–Cold War era. The article underscores how these disruptions open a rare opportunity for India and the Global South to shape a fairer and more inclusive global economic order.

    Understanding the New Economic Paradigms

    How are populist autocrats reshaping capitalism?

    1. State–capital fusion: Populist autocrats have created a “state-capital Gordian knot”, replacing laissez-faire capitalism with systems that serve oligopolies in exchange for political loyalty.
    2. Corporate dominance: Crony-capitalists now influence state policies, prioritising corporate gains over citizen welfare — mortgaging public assets and weakening the social contract.
    3. Socio-political consequences: This model centralises power, marginalises public accountability, and distorts market competitiveness — leading to plutocracies, not democracies.

    Why are traditional power politics resurfacing in the economic sphere?

    1. Resurgent statecraft: America’s recalibration to “Make America Great Again” marks a return of economic nationalism.
    2. Strategic control: U.S. actions — shifting Taiwan’s chip manufacturing, securing Panama routes, weaponising rare earths, and asserting dominance in the Arctic — reflect geo-economic containment of China.
    3. Ecological imperialism: By controlling supply chains and energy corridors, global powers are expanding influence under the guise of “strategic autonomy.”
    4. Global instability: These assertive spheres of influence have led to conflicts and genocides, reigniting the dangers of zero-sum geopolitics.

    How is digital colonialism reshaping global economies?

    1. Big Tech dominance: Cloud capitalists have captured value chains and data flows, influencing politics and governance.
    2. Digital imperialism: Initiatives like the AI Action Plan, Cloud Act, and SWIFT weaponisation allow powerful states to dominate financial and cyber infrastructure.
    3. Erosion of sovereignty: Over 100 central banks are piloting state-backed digital currencies, which could ease transactions but risk undermining national autonomy.
    4. Political risks: Digital finance systems complicate political funding, giving populist regimes more tools for manipulation.

    How have aid withdrawals widened global inequalities?

    1. Funding collapse: G-7 nations’ $44 billion cuts in developmental aid could push 5.7 million Africans into poverty by 2026.
    2. Ripple effects: In Nepal, reduced grants for small enterprises led to eight lakh migrations, intensifying domestic dissatisfaction.
    3. Humanitarian fallout: 16.7 million people lost access to the World Food Programme in 2023, sparking recruitment into militias across the Sahel region.
    4. Moral crisis: Retrenchment of aid reflects a shift from shared prosperity to self-preservation, amplifying instability in the Global South.

    What challenges and opportunities emerge for India and the Global South?

    1. Debt and inequality: Neoliberal globalisation fostered sovereign debt traps and extreme wealth concentration in the Global North.
    2. Poverty crisis: The World Bank’s 2022 Poverty and Shared Prosperity Report notes 47% of humanity lives below the $6.85 poverty line, while 735 million suffer hunger.
    3. Collaborative alternatives: India and the Global South can construct a New Economic Deal through debt-relief frameworks, institutional reforms, and South–South cooperation.
    4. Strategic vision: Building bipartisan international ties and fair trade alliances through BRICS and regional groupings will ensure resilience against Western hegemony.

    How must India recalibrate its domestic policies to lead globally?

    1. State leadership: The government must play a commanding role in strategic sectors — energy, data, infrastructure, healthcare, and agriculture — as done by East Asian economies.
    2. Anti-monopoly mechanisms: Creating sovereign wealth funds (like Norway) and enforcing anti-trust norms can prevent oligarchic dominance.
    3. Reimagining PSUs: Instead of privatisation, redeploying PSUs like China’s state-owned enterprises can serve national and geopolitical goals.
    4. Knowledge economy: Heavy investment in research, education, and innovation will secure India’s place as a globally competitive power.
    5. True non-alignment: India’s foreign policy must remain substantive, not performative — driven by consensus and independence rather than partisan interests.

    Conclusion

    The global economic transformation is not merely about trade or finance; it is about who controls the architecture of global interdependence. As old hierarchies fracture and new alignments emerge, India stands at a crossroads, between aligning with entrenched powers or leading a new era of equitable globalization. The coming decade will test whether the Global South can collectively author a future defined by justice, sustainability, and shared prosperity. The moment is precarious, but also profoundly promising.

  • The critical factor in India’s clean energy ambition

    Introduction

    India’s ambition to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy by 2030 and net zero emissions by 2070 depends not just on sunlight and wind but on minerals buried beneath the earth’s surface. Lithium, cobalt, and REEs form the backbone of technologies driving the clean energy revolution. However, India imports almost all of these minerals, exposing its renewable future to external shocks. The article explores how India is gearing up to build a resilient supply chain, promote domestic mining, and move toward a circular economy, turning its green dreams into a self-reliant reality.

    India’s Clean Energy Journey and the Mineral Imperative

    1. Critical minerals as enablers: They power EV batteries, solar panels, and wind turbines, the pillars of the green transition.
    2. Explosive market growth: India’s EV market is projected to grow at a 49% CAGR from 2023 to 2030, driven by the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) 2024.
    3. Battery boom: The battery storage market, valued at $2.8 billion in 2023, is set to surge with renewable energy integration.
    4. Import dependency: India currently imports nearly 100% of lithium, cobalt, and nickel, and over 90% of REEs, creating severe strategic vulnerabilities.

    Why Dependence is Dangerous: Global Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

    1. China’s dominance: Controls 60% of global REE production and 85% of processing capacity, giving it massive leverage.
    2. Geopolitical risks: Trade restrictions, conflicts, and supply disruptions can derail India’s energy transition plans.
    3. National security angle: Critical minerals are not just about clean energy,  they are strategic assets influencing defence, technology, and economic sovereignty.

    India’s Domestic Potential: A Hidden Treasure Beneath the Soil

    1. New discoveries: The Geological Survey of India (GSI) identified 5.9 million tonnes of inferred lithium in Jammu & Kashmir in 2023, a major breakthrough.
    2. Policy push: The National Mineral Exploration Policy (NMEP), 2016, and amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2021, opened up exploration to private players.
    3. Auctions driving interest: In 2023 alone, 20 critical mineral blocks (lithium, graphite, REEs) were auctioned, attracting domestic and multinational bidders.
    4. Potential-rich states: Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan (lithium), Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh (REEs) have emerged as mineral hotspots.

    From Discovery to Refinement: The Missing Link

    1. Production bottleneck: India contributes less than 1% of global REE production due to weak refining and processing infrastructure.
    2. Need for partnerships: Public-private collaborations can bring in advanced processing technologies and recycling systems.
    3. Government incentives: Subsidies, tax breaks, and R&D grants are critical to scale domestic lithium and cobalt pilot projects.

    Investment and Policy Momentum: Building the Foundation

    1. Regulatory reforms: The Mines and Minerals (Amendment) Act, 2023 allows private exploration but the sector faces high costs and environmental concerns.
    2. Economic potential: Mining contributes only 2.5% to India’s GDP, compared to 13.6% in Australia — signalling untapped opportunity.
    3. National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM): With an outlay of ₹34,300 crore, it aims to strengthen the value chain — from exploration to recycling.

    Institutional efforts:

    1. NMDC diversifying through its Australian arm.
    2. IREL (India) Ltd. extracting REEs like neodymium, praseodymium, and dysprosium.
    3. KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), formed in 2019, tasked with overseas acquisitions of mineral assets.

    Moving Towards a Circular Economy

    1. E-waste as opportunity: India produces 4 million metric tonnes of e-waste annually, yet only 10% is formally recycled.
    2. Recycling policies: The Battery Waste Management Rules (2022) and E-Waste Management Rules (2022) aim to improve recovery of critical minerals.
    3. Challenges: Weak enforcement, poor infrastructure, and lack of awareness hinder progress.
    4. Way forward: Public-private recycling hubs can boost technology access, cut costs, and reduce environmental footprint, paving the way for a circular economy.

    Conclusion

    Critical minerals are the backbone of India’s clean energy transformation. Securing them is not just about green growth, but about economic independence and strategic security. India’s policy thrust through the National Critical Mineral Mission, domestic auctions, and recycling reforms signal intent, but execution remains key. A coherent strategy involving private investment, state backing, and global partnerships can ensure India does not just consume green technology, it creates it. The success of this mission will determine whether India emerges as a leader in the global clean energy race or remains dependent on others for its green dreams.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective?

    Linkage: India’s ability to meet 50% of its energy needs from renewables by 2030 hinges on securing critical minerals like lithium and REEs that power solar, wind, and EV technologies. A shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables will accelerate domestic mining, recycling, and innovation—building the self-reliant green infrastructure essential for achieving this target.

  • Mission Drishti: World’s First Multi-sensor EO Satellite

    Why in the News?

    Indian space-tech start-up GalaxEye, based in Bengaluru, has announced the upcoming launch of Mission Drishti, the world’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, in the first quarter of 2026.

    About Mission Drishti:

    • Objective: To provide high-resolution, real-time geospatial intelligence for governments, defence, and industries across critical domains such as disaster management, infrastructure, agriculture, and national security.
    • Developer: Conceived by Bengaluru-based GalaxEye Space, an Indian space-tech start-up founded by IIT Madras alumni.
    • Nature: World’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, capable of integrating multiple imaging technologies on a single platform.
    • Launch Timeline: Scheduled for first quarter of 2026, serving as the first step in GalaxEye’s plan to deploy a constellation of 8–12 satellites by 2029.
    • Innovation: Combines Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical sensors for multi-dimensional imaging across all weather and lighting conditions.
    • Significance: Marks India’s largest privately built satellite and establishes India’s position in the global EO market with indigenous, high-precision imaging technology.

    Key Features:

    • Multi-Sensor Payload: Integrates SAR and optical imaging systems on one platform, a first in global satellite technology.
    • Resolution and Capacity: Offers 1.5-metre resolution, providing ultra-clear imagery for tactical and analytical applications.
    • All-Weather Operation: SAR enables imaging day and night, through cloud cover and adverse weather, ensuring continuous monitoring capability.
    • Satellite Specifications: Weighs 160 kg, making it India’s heaviest privately developed EO satellite, designed for spatial, spectral, and temporal precision.
    • Constellation Vision: Part of GalaxEye’s long-term plan to deploy 8–12 satellites by 2029 for near-real-time global coverage.
    • Applications: Defence surveillance, disaster management, infrastructure auditing, agriculture analytics, and environmental monitoring.
    [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

    1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location 2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location 3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*