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GS Paper: GS3

  • Makhana (Fox Nut) Cultivation in India

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister called the National Makhana Board a “revolution” in India’s farm value chain, aiming to formalise and commercialise makhana cultivation.

    National Makhana Board (NMB)

    • Objective: To enhance production, processing, value addition, and export competitiveness of makhana (fox nut) through a structured national framework.
    • Establishment: Constituted in 2025 under the Ministry of Food Processing Industries with an initial outlay of ₹100 crore to institutionalise India’s makhana value chain.
    • Functions: Provides training, technical support, quality regulation, and export facilitation, aligning makhana with schemes such as PM-FME, One District One Product (ODOP), and Atmanirbhar Bharat.
    • Regional Presence: Operates regional centres in Darbhanga, Purnea, and Katihar (Bihar) for farmer outreach and capacity building.
    • Institutional Linkages: Coordinates with ICAR, NABARD, and agricultural universities to promote high-yield varieties (HYVs), mechanised harvesting, and standardised processing.
    • Governance Structure: Comprises Central and State officials, FPO representatives, and industry experts ensuring multi-stakeholder participation.
    • Core Goals: Expand exports, ensure fair farmer pricing, and build sustainable livelihoods for makhana-growing communities.

    About Makhana:

    • Overview: Edible seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), found in freshwater wetlands across South and East Asia.
    • Nutritional Profile: Protein-rich, low-fat, and mineral-dense, recognised globally as a superfood.
    • Cultural & Medicinal Use: Integral to Ayurveda, Unani, and Chinese medicine; used for blood pressure control, fertility, and immunity.
    • Policy & Branding: Listed under ODOP, backed by branding and export support; granted GI tag “Mithila Makhana” (2022).
    • Global Market: Valued at USD 43.5 million (2023), projected to reach USD 100 million by 2033, positioning India as global leader.
    • Export market: Almost 30% to US, UAE 20%, UK 15% , Canada 10%, Singapore 7-8%.

    Makhana Cultivation in India:

    • Geographic Concentration: Bihar produces ≈ 90 % of India’s makhana from Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa districts.
    • Agro-Climatic Needs: Thrives in stagnant ponds/lakes, 20–35 °C temperature, 100–250 cm rainfall, and loamy soils.
    • Area & Yield: Grown on 15,000 ha producing ≈ 10,000 tonnes annually; HYVs like Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1 yield 3–3.5 t/ha vs 1.7–1.9 t/ha earlier.
    • Other States: Cultivated marginally in West Bengal, Manipur, Assam, Tripura, Odisha, MP, Rajasthan, UP.
    • Challenges: Labour-intensive manual harvesting, limited mechanisation, and high input costs.

  • RBI draft norms on Capital Market Exposure (CME)

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India released draft “Capital Market Exposure Directions, 2025” to overhaul rules on banks’ exposure to capital markets.

    What is Capital Market Exposure (CME)?

    It simply means how much a bank is involved in the stock market and related financial activities.

    When banks deal with the capital market, they can do this in two main ways:

    1. Direct Exposure: When the bank itself invests in shares, bonds, or mutual funds, just like an investor would. Example: if a bank buys shares of a company or invests in government bonds, that’s direct exposure.
    2. Indirect Exposure: When the bank gives loans linked to the stock market, for example, lending money to stockbrokers, mutual funds, or investors who want to buy shares.

    Because the stock market goes up and down, these activities are riskier than normal banking (like giving home or business loans). So, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) keeps a close watch and sets limits on how much banks can invest or lend in the capital market.

    About Draft Norms on Capital Market Exposure, 2025:

    • Objective: To modernise, unify, and simplify rules on banks’ capital-market lending and investment exposures.
    • Expanded Scope: Permits acquisition-finance lending for corporates and higher credit limits for individuals participating in Initial Public Offerings (IPOs), Follow-on Public Offerings (FPOs), and Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs).

    Key Features of the Draft CME Norms:

    • Exposure Limits:
      • Direct exposure (investments + acquisition finance) capped at 20 percent of Tier-1 capital on solo and consolidated bases.
      • Aggregate exposure (direct + indirect) capped at 40 percent of consolidated Tier-1 capital.
    • Acquisition Finance:
      • Banks may finance up to 70 percent of acquisition cost, with borrowers contributing 30 percent equity from own funds.
      • Permitted only for listed companies with sound financials and independent valuations compliant with Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) norms.
      • Aggregate acquisition-finance exposure limited to 10 percent of Tier-1 capital; not allowed for Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs), or related parties.
    • Individual Market-Participation Loans:
      • Maximum loan per individual increased to ₹ 25 lakh; up to 75 percent of subscription value may be financed with a 25 percent margin.
      • Shares allotted under IPOs, FPOs, or ESOPs must be pledged and lien-marked to the lending bank.
    • Loans Against Securities:
      • Capped at ₹ 1 crore per individual for eligible securities (government securities, mutual-fund units, listed shares, or high-rated corporate debt).
      • Banks must maintain prudent LTV ratios and adopt internal risk-control systems for valuation and monitoring.

    Need for Such Norms:

    • Modernisation: Replaces fragmented rules with a unified prudential framework.
    • Corporate Expansion: Enables M&A financing, supporting Indian firms’ global competitiveness.
    • Retail Participation: Encourages individual investment and deepens equity-market access.
    • Risk Containment: Exposure caps and buffers ensure stability and discipline in bank lending.
    • Global Alignment: Harmonises with Basel III and international acquisition-finance standards.
    • Economic Impact: Enhances financial depth, liquidity, and investment-led growth in capital markets.
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following activities of the Reserve Bank of India is considered to be part of ‘sterilisation?

    Options: (a) Conducting ‘Open Market Operations’ *

    (b) Oversight of settlement and payment systems

    (c) Debt and cash management for the Central and State Governments

    (d) Regulating the functions of Non-banking Financial Institutions

     

  • Should India take global leadership on climate change?

    Introduction

    Global momentum on climate change is waning. The U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, the EU’s cautious stance, and Brazil’s focus on implementation have created a leadership vacuum. India, backed by consistent domestic policies and credible renewable achievements, is being viewed as a stabilising force in climate negotiations.

    Current Global Context and India’s Position

    • Leadership Vacuum: Developed economies show declining enthusiasm for climate leadership due to economic pressures and energy insecurity.
    • India’s Steady Role: India maintains policy continuity and cross-party consensus on climate goals, avoiding divisive politics.
    • Emerging ‘Axis of Good’: Expanding partnerships with Europe, Brazil, and developing nations for climate technology and forest cooperation.
    • Implementation Emphasis: COP30 expected to focus on execution of existing commitments rather than new pledges.

    The Financing Challenge and Implementation Gap

    1. Adaptation Finance Deficit: Global climate finance needs estimated at $1.3 trillion annually by 2035, highlighting dependence on private and multilateral funding.
    2. Means of Implementation: Finance, technology transfer, and capacity building remain central to effective execution.
    3. Blended Finance Approach: Encourages combining public, private, and philanthropic resources for adaptation sectors like agriculture and water.
    4. Pipeline Creation: Necessitates project,ready mechanisms at the national and state levels to attract investments.

    India’s Achievements and Strategic Leverage

    1. Emission Stabilisation: Power sector emissions plateaued as renewable integration expands.
    2. Renewable Leadership: Non,fossil fuel sources account for ~50% of installed power capacity.
    3. Decoupling Trend: Energy demand growth no longer proportional to emissions growth, indicating structural change.
    4. Green Industry Shift: Corporate groups (Adani, Reliance) invest heavily in green hydrogen, solar, and renewables driven by market value creation.

    Adaptation,Driven Growth and Dual,Benefit Projects

    1. Integrated Projects: Initiatives like PM,KUSUM use solar energy in agriculture, reducing diesel dependence and improving income security.
    2. Co,benefit Design: Projects combining adaptation (resilience) and mitigation (emission reduction) yield long,term sustainability.
    3. Sectoral Innovation: Solar,powered cold,chain storage and electric buses illustrate scalable, cost,efficient climate solutions.
    4. Aggregation Advantage: National,scale schemes can reduce costs, increase service access, and enhance local resilience.

    Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and Adaptation Planning

    1. Current Commitment: 50% of power capacity from non,fossil sources by 2030; aligned with Paris Agreement goals.
    2. Green Hydrogen Linkage: Recognition of renewable energy’s role in hydrogen production can strengthen India’s NDC profile.
    3. Industrial Decarbonisation: Industry identified as a “hard,to,abate” sector; emphasis on electrification, alternative materials, and carbon markets.
    4. Adaptation Priority List: Proposal for a “wish list” of adaptation projects under carbon markets, adaptable by States.
    5. Carbon Market Strategy: Promotes participation in high value areas (solar + storage) rather than single,stream credits.

    Should India Lead Globally?

    1. Moral Credibility: Low per capita emissions and proactive domestic policy lend legitimacy to India’s global stance.
    2. Strategic Interest: Leadership enhances India’s role in shaping financial flows and green technology frameworks.
    3. Implementation Expertise: India’s experience with renewable deployment and welfare,linked schemes adds operational credibility.
    4. Risk and Responsibility: Global leadership must balance ambition with developmental imperatives for energy access and equity.

    Conclusion

    India’s leadership on climate change is neither symbolic nor premature, it is pragmatic, equity,driven, and implementation oriented. With stable governance, scalable models, and growing private participation, India can anchor the next phase of global climate action by ensuring that commitments translate into outcomes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parses (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)? What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

    Linkage: This question assesses understanding of India’s climate diplomacy from COP26 to future summits under the UNFCCC framework. The article extends this trajectory by highlighting India’s shift from pledge to performance, emphasizing implementation, adaptation finance, and renewable energy leadership ahead of COP30.

  • Saranda’s Forests and the case for a ‘Sanctuary’ before Supreme Court

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India, led by the Chief Justice of India (CJI), directed the Jharkhand government to submit an undertaking to notify a new wildlife sanctuary in the Saranda Forest, West Singhbhum district.

    Judicial Background and Case Chronology:

    • Origin: Stemmed from NGT’s July 2022 order directing Jharkhand to notify Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve.
    • Petitioner’s Argument: Claimed Saranda was already a “game sanctuary” (1968, Bihar), deemed protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Non-Compliance: State inaction led the case to the Supreme Court, which between Nov 2024–Sept 2025 repeatedly criticised delay and evasive conduct.
    • SC Intervention: CJI D. Y. Chandrachud-led Bench (Apr 16, Sept 17 hearings) condemned “dilly-dallying tactics” and demanded clarity on committees altering sanctuary boundaries in mining belts.

    Back2Basics: What is a Wildlife Sanctuary?

    • Legal Basis: Under Section 18, Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, areas declared by States to protect flora, fauna, and habitats.
    • Objective: Preserve ecological integrity, sustain biodiversity, and enable natural regeneration.
    • Permissible Use: Limited human activities, grazing, fuelwood, traditional use, allowed with Chief Wildlife Warden’s permission.
    • Prohibitions: Hunting, felling, quarrying, mining banned under Sections 27–33.
    • Continuity Clause: Section 66(3) deems all pre-1972 “game sanctuaries” as wildlife sanctuaries.
    • Governance: Managed by State Forest Department; often part of eco-sensitive zones under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
    • Examples: India has 550+ sanctuaries, incl. Chilika, Bhadra, Periyar, many upgraded to national parks or tiger reserves.

    About Saranda Forest:

    • Location: West Singhbhum, Jharkhand; ~856 sq km (816 reserved, rest protected forest).
    • Etymology: “Saranda” in Ho language = “seven hundred hills.”
    • Vegetation: Dense Sal (Shorea robusta) forests with bamboo, mahua, terminalia; among India’s richest Sal ecosystems.
    • Waterbodies: the Karo River and the Koina River.
    • Ecological Role: Identified by WII as a biogeographic bridge between Jharkhand and Odisha within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
    • Fauna: Asian elephant, four-horned antelope, sloth bear, leopard, civet, diverse birds and butterflies.
    • Elephant Corridors: Links to Keonjhar & Sundargarh (OD) and Hasdeo-Arand (CG).
    • Threats: Illegal iron/manganese mining, fragmentation, pollution, flagged by Justice M. B. Shah Commission (2014).
    • Economic Value: Holds ~26 % of India’s iron ore reserves, mined by SAIL and private lessees.

    Significance of Supreme Court’s Ruling (2025):

    • Directive: Ordered Jharkhand to notify 31,468 ha (314.68 sq km) of Saranda as a Wildlife Sanctuary, enforcing NGT 2022 order.
    • Legal Strengthening: Reinforces Wildlife Act 1972, Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, and Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
    • Ecological Impact: Grants protection to Sal canopy, corridors, and watersheds, ensuring habitat connectivity with Odisha.
    • Mining Clause: Existing valid leases (e.g., SAIL) remain unaffected, balancing economy and ecology.
    • Tribal Safeguards: Upholds rights of Ho & Munda Adivasis under FRA 2006 and PESA 1996.
    • Outcome: Sanctuary notification to curb deforestation, revive corridors, and enhance carbon sequestration.
    • Precedent Value: Sets national model for reconciling mining, tribal rights, and biodiversity in resource-rich landscapes.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The definition of “Critical Wildlife Habitat” is incorporated in the Forest Rights Act, 2006.

    2. For the first time in India, Baigas have been given Habitat Rights.

    3. Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change officially decides and declares Habitat Rights for Primitive and Vulnerable Tribal Groups in any part of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)

    Why in the News?

    Central Asian countries have endorsed a new six-year Work Programme (2025–2031) under the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI) to conserve 17 migratory mammal species across shared borders.

    What is the Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)?

    • Origin & Launch: Established in 2014 at the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP11) to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) in Quito, Ecuador.
    • Purpose: Aims to halt population decline and ensure long-term survival of migratory mammals across Central Asia’s steppes, deserts, and mountain ecosystems through coordinated conservation.
    • Participating Countries: Involves 14 range states, Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
    • Framework: Provides a transboundary conservation platform uniting governments, NGOs, and scientific institutions to address poaching, habitat loss, climate threats, and migration barriers.
    • Species Focus: Covers 17 migratory mammals, including argali sheep, Asiatic cheetah, snow leopard, saiga antelope, wild yak, wild camel, Przewalski’s horse, and Bukhara deer.
    • Work Programme (2025–2031): Adopted at Tashkent (Uzbekistan); prioritises key landscapes, ecological corridors, and community-based conservation partnerships.
    • Approach: Integrates science, cross-border policy harmonisation, and pastoral community engagement, promoting coexistence between wildlife and livelihoods.
    • Key Partners: Supported by IUCN, WWF, CMS Secretariat, and national agencies to strengthen ecosystem connectivity across Central Asia.

    Back2Basics: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS)

    • Objective: To conserve migratory species and their habitats across borders, sustaining ecological networks throughout their migratory ranges.
    • Establishment: Signed on 23 June 1979 in Bonn, Germany, under UNEP; entered into force in 1983.
    • Unique Mandate: The only global treaty exclusively protecting terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species.
    • Legal Instruments:
      • Agreements – binding treaties for specific species/regions.
      • MoUs – non-binding cooperation arrangements.
    • Conference of the Parties (COP): The CMS decision-making body adopting strategies like CAMI.
    • Membership: Over 130 Parties worldwide, promoting science-based conservation and international cooperation.
    • Global Significance: Aligns with SDG-15 (Life on Land) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
    • Next COP: CMS COP15, to be held March 23–29, 2026, in Brazil, will review and advance regional frameworks including CAMI.

  • Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) India Scheme 

    Why in the News?

    India’s Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) programme was commended by the World Trade Organization (WTO) for significantly enhancing MSME participation in global trade.

    What is AEO India Scheme?

    • Overview: It is a voluntary certification programme launched by the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) in 2011 to promote secure and efficient cross-border trade.
    • Objective: Identifies and accredits trusted traders demonstrating high customs compliance and supply chain security, offering trade facilitation benefits.
    • Evolution: Began as a pilot in 2011, revised in 2016 to merge with the Accredited Client Programme (ACP), aligning with the World Customs Organization (WCO) SAFE Framework of Standards.
    • Certification Tiers: Consists of AEO-T1, AEO-T2, AEO-T3, and AEO-LO (Logistics Operator) each offering progressively higher benefits based on compliance, solvency, and security.
    • Key Benefits: Provides faster customs clearances, deferred duty payments, direct port delivery, reduced inspections, priority adjudication, and dedicated client managers.

    About WCO AEO Framework:

    • Origin: Established by the World Customs Organization (WCO) under the SAFE Framework of Standards (2005) to enhance trade security and customs modernisation.
    • Core Aim: Ensures secure, legitimate trade through collaboration between Customs authorities and private traders.
    • Three Pillars:
      • Customs-to-Customs cooperation for border coordination.
      • Customs-to-Business partnership via AEO certification.
      • Customs-to-Other Agencies collaboration for integrated control.
    • AEO Concept: Certifies compliant entities as trusted operators, granting simplified and expedited procedures.
    • Benefits: Enables faster clearances, mutual recognition between countries, enhanced risk management, and lower transaction costs.
    • Global Adoption: Over 90 countries have operational AEO programmes with Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs) ensuring standardisation.
    • India’s Alignment: India’s AEO model is fully harmonised with the WCO SAFE Framework, ranking among the most comprehensive customs–business partnership systems in the developing world.

  • The Tailwinds from Lower Global Oil Prices

    Why in the News

    Global oil prices have fallen by nearly 16% since the beginning of the year, with Brent crude now around $61 per barrel. This decline comes despite geopolitical disruptions such as Ukraine’s drone attacks on Russian energy assets and ongoing U.S.–China tariff frictions.
    The fall signals a major shift in global oil dynamics, driven by technological advances, demand stagnation in OECD economies, and a surge in production from both OPEC+ and non-OPEC countries. For India, this could translate into substantial fiscal gains and macroeconomic stability, but the relief may be short-lived given the cyclical volatility of the oil market.

    Introduction

    Crude oil remains the world’s most traded and influential commodity, impacting not just transportation and industry but also fiscal and foreign policy. With over 100 million barrels produced daily, the oil market’s direction affects the global economy’s heartbeat.
    In recent months, a fascinating shift has occurred — a supply-driven decline in prices, contradicting traditional geopolitical expectations. For India, this moment offers both an opportunity for economic strengthening and a reminder of the need for strategic resilience in energy planning.

    Shifting Dynamics in the Global Oil Market

    What is Driving the Decline in Global Oil Prices?

    1. Technological disruptions: Innovations like shale extraction, horizontal drilling, and deep-sea exploration have boosted supply, lowering dependency on traditional producers.
    2. Stagnant demand in OECD economies: Due to slow post-COVID recovery, climate action, and EV adoption, demand growth has flattened.
    3. Emerging market growth plateau: Even China’s demand is tapering, with electric vehicles forming 50% of all new car sales.
    4. Supply overhang — Global production rose by 5.6 mbpd, outpacing demand growth of 1.3 mbpd, creating a glut that pushed prices down.

    How Have Global Producers and Consumers Reacted?

    1. OPEC+ internal friction: Saudi Arabia wants to restore full production to regain market share, while Russia seeks gradual output increases amid sanctions.
    2. Consumer advantage: Many countries have used this moment to replenish strategic petroleum reserves, stabilizing short-term demand.
    3. Floating stockpiles: Over 100 million barrels of unsold crude remain on tankers at sea, an indicator of market saturation.

    What Are the Contradictory Forecasts from Key Agencies?

    1. OPEC’s projection: Expects a slight supply deficit by 2026 (~50,000 bpd short).
    2. IEA’s projection: Predicts an unprecedented oversupply of 4 mbpd, aligning with think-tank estimates of Brent falling to $50/barrel.
    3. Divergence significance: Reflects deep uncertainty and potential volatility, crucial for policy planners like India.

    What Is the Broader Economic Context Influencing Oil Prices?

    1. IMF’s World Economic Outlook (2025): Describes global economy as “in flux, prospects remain dim.”
    2. Global growth slowdown: Projected at 3.2% in 2025 and 3.1% in 2026, with trade expansion slowing to 2.9%, down from 3.5% in 2024.
    3. Geopolitical wildcards: Any relaxation of sanctions on Russia, Iran, or Venezuela, or renewed West Asian tensions, could again disrupt supply-demand balance.

    What Does It Mean for India’s Economy?

    1. Import advantage: India’s oil import bill was $137 billion in 2024-25; every $1 decline in prices improves the current account deficit by $1.6 billion.
    2. Fiscal gains: Lower prices reduce subsidies and inflation, improving fiscal space and boosting public capital expenditure.
    3. Diplomatic breathing room: Reduced reliance on discounted Russian crude may ease U.S. trade frictions.
    4. Risk of remittance slowdown: A weaker West Asian economy may hit Indian remittances, exports, and investments.
    5. Cyclical caution: The oil market’s volatility means current relief could be short-lived, underscoring the need for energy diversification.

    Conclusion

    The decline in global oil prices provides India a strategic tailwind: strengthening fiscal health, reducing inflation, and supporting growth. Yet, this momentary advantage must not breed complacency. The future demands long-term energy resilience, investment in renewables, and strategic petroleum reserves. In an interconnected world, India must use this window to transition towards sustainable and self-reliant energy security before the next price cycle strikes.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2013] It is said the India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can feed the needs of country for quarter century. However, tapping of the resources doesn’t appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically the availability and issues involved.

    Linkage: The 2013 question on India’s untapped shale reserves links to the article’s theme of global oversupply driven by the shale revolution; India’s limited shale development has kept it import-dependent, making lower global oil prices a temporary boon rather than true energy security.

  • Tapping the Shine: India must step in as a supplier of solar power to sustain its industry

    Why in the News

    India’s solar energy sector has achieved a historic milestone — generating 1,08,494 GWh in 2024–25, overtaking Japan and becoming the third-largest producer globally. This achievement mirrors India’s rapid growth in renewable capacity — solar module manufacturing expanded from 2 GW in 2014 to a projected 100 GW in 2025. However, beneath this success lies a dilemma: despite its potential, Indian-made solar modules are 1.5–2 times costlier than Chinese ones, and without robust export markets, the new manufacturing capacity may struggle. Hence, India’s push to emerge as a solar supplier to Africa under the International Solar Alliance represents not just climate diplomacy but a crucial economic strategy.

    Introduction

    India’s solar revolution is a remarkable blend of climate responsibility, industrial policy, and global ambition. The cost of solar power fell below coal in 2017 — a landmark that catalyzed private and public investment alike. Yet, with China’s dominance in module exports and India’s limited domestic absorption, the future of India’s solar manufacturing depends on securing new markets and deepening its international role as a sustainable energy leader.

    India’s Solar Power Success Story

    1. Massive Growth: India’s solar generation reached 1,08,494 GWh in 2024–25, overtaking Japan (96,459 GWh).
    2. Manufacturing Leap: Module manufacturing capacity expanded from 2 GW (2014) to 100 GW (2025 projection), a fiftyfold jump.
    3. Installed Capacity: India’s current installed solar capacity stands at 117 GW (as of September 2025).
    4. Comparative Rise: India now ranks 3rd globally, behind only China and the US, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IREA).

    What are India’s Solar Targets for 2030?

    1. Climate Commitments: India aims to source 50% of its power from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.
    2. Solar Share: Around 250–280 GW of this will come from solar energy.
    3. Annual Addition Needed: India must add 30 GW/year until 2030, but has managed 17–23 GW/year in recent years.
    4. Challenge: This gap reflects issues in scaling production, costs, and grid integration.

    Why is Indian Solar Manufacturing Still Costlier?

    1. Higher Costs: Indian modules are 1.5–2x costlier than Chinese ones.
    2. Reasons:
      • China’s control over raw materials and solar supply chains.
      • Superior production lines and economies of scale.
      • India’s fragmented ecosystem and dependency on imported inputs.
    3. Export Comparison:
      • India exported 4 GW of modules to the US in 2024 (a temporary gain due to US restrictions on China).
      • China exported 236 GW the same year, a staggering 59x lead.

    How Can India Sustain Its Solar Manufacturing Boom?

    1. Need for New Markets: Without external demand, India’s large new capacity may remain underutilized.
    2. Africa as Opportunity:
      • Africa uses only 4% of its arable land for irrigation due to lack of rural power.
      • India can leverage this gap with solar-powered pumpsets, modeled on its PM Kusum Scheme.
    3. Diplomatic Leverage: India can push its solar expertise through the International Solar Alliance (ISA), showcasing schemes like PM Surya Ghar (urban rooftop) and PM Kusum (rural solar).
    4. Strategic Goal: To become a credible second supplier after China in emerging markets like Africa.

    Domestic Solar Initiatives as Models for Export

    1. PM Kusum Scheme: Promotes solar irrigation pumps for farmers, ideal for replication in Africa’s rural power-deficient regions.
    2. PM Surya Ghar Scheme: Encourages rooftop solar adoption in urban India, demonstrating scalable, decentralized power solutions.
    3. Outcome So Far: Adoption is moderate, but the models offer policy templates for developing nations.

    Conclusion

    India’s solar journey is a story of ambition and transition, from an energy importer to a renewable exporter. Yet, sustaining this momentum requires vision beyond borders. Becoming a solar supplier to Africa can ensure India’s manufacturing viability, strengthen climate diplomacy, and cement its place in the global green order. As the world tilts toward decarbonization, India’s light must not just illuminate its homes, but the developing world.

  • Great Green Wall of Andhra Pradesh

    Why in the News?

    Andhra Pradesh launched the Great Green Wall project, inspired by Africa’s Great Green Wall, to turn its 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coast into a bio-shield against cyclones and sea-level rise.

    About Great Green Wall of Andhra Pradesh:

    • Overview: Launched as a flagship coastal afforestation and climate resilience project; Forms part of the state’s Coastal Green Mission, aligning with SDG 13 (Climate Action) and India’s National Coastal Mission.
    • Objective: To protect Andhra Pradesh’s 1,034 km Bay of Bengal coastline from cyclones, tsunamis, and sea-level rise.
    • Inspired by: Africa’s Great Green Wall, adapted for India’s eastern coastal ecosystems.
    • Target: Enhance Andhra Pradesh’s green cover from 30% (2025) to 37% by 2029 and 50% by 2047 through sustained plantation and protection efforts.

    Key Features:

    • Geographical Coverage: Extends from Tirupati to Srikakulam, spanning the full 1,034 km coastline.
    • Width: Green belt stretches up to 5 km inland, with a variable width of 50–200 metres.
    • Core Species: Plantation includes mangroves, casuarina, palmyra, bamboo, and other shelterbelt trees.
    • Launch Site: Officially inaugurated at Surya Lanka Beach (Bapatla district) on 11 September 2025.
    • Community Role: Involves Self-Help Groups, eco-clubs, MGNREGS workers, fishermen, and local coastal communities.
    • Integration: Develops green buffers around ports, SEZs, industrial corridors, and aquaculture ponds.
    • Funding: Supported by CAMPA, MISHTI, Green Credit Programme, MGNREGS, CSR funds, and District Mineral Funds.

  • Scientists use ‘Atomic Stencils’ to make designer Nanoparticles

    Why in the News?

    Scientists from the United States and South Korea have developed a novel “atomic stencilling” method to coat gold nanoparticles with polymer patches, enabling unprecedented nanoscale precision in material design.

    What is Atomic Stencilling?

    • Overview: A novel nanofabrication technique where iodide atoms act as nanoscale masks (stencils) on gold nanoparticle surfaces, allowing scientists to “paint” polymer patches with atomic-level precision.
    • Mechanism: These polymer-coated patches create distinct functional zones on each nanoparticle, enabling controlled self-assembly into complex 3D nanostructures.
    • Innovation Context: Represents a breakthrough in atomic-scale material patterning, advancing nanotechnology toward programmable matter and precision material design.

    Advantages Offered:

    • Atomic Precision: Achieves atomic-scale patterning, precisely controlling patch size, geometry, and placement.
    • High Uniformity: Generates identical nanoparticles for consistent, predictable self-assembly behaviour.
    • Scalability: Allows large-scale synthesis of patchy nanoparticles with simplified processing.
    • Material Versatility: Compatible with multiple materials — gold, silver, silica — and adaptable to various polymer coatings.
    • Enhanced Self-Assembly: Promotes spontaneous formation of ordered 3D superlattices and metamaterials.
    • Functional Tunability: Enables customisation of surface chemistry, optical, and electronic properties.

    Key Applications:

    • Targeted Drug Delivery: Functional patches enable selective binding and controlled release to specific biological targets.
    • Catalysis: Distinct surface domains improve reactivity and catalytic precision.
    • Optoelectronics & Photonics: Supports creation of plasmonic and light-responsive metamaterials.
    • Energy Systems: Enhances charge transfer and stability in batteries and solar cells.
    • Smart Materials: Forms basis for programmable, self-assembling nanostructures with adaptive functions.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements:
    1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
    2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
    3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3 *