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GS Paper: GS3

  • Ramsar COP15 opens in Zimbabwe

    Why in the News?

    Delegates from 172 countries convened in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, for the 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP15) to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

    Highlights of Ramsar COP15

    • Theme: Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future
    • Host Nation: Zimbabwe (holds presidency of the Ramsar Convention for 3 years)
    • Expected Outcome: Adoption of the Victoria Falls Declaration, a global framework to protect wetlands

    About the Ramsar Convention:

    • Adopted on: 2 February 1971, in Ramsar, Iran.
    • Objective: Conserve and ensure the wise use of wetlands globally.
    • Key Functions:
      • Identify wetlands of international importance.
      • Promote sustainable management practices.
      • Foster international cooperation in wetland conservation.
    • Governing Body:
      • Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP) meets every 3 years.
      • Reviews implementation, adopts site designations, budgets, and policy actions.
      • Includes member + non-member states, IGOs, and NGOs as observers.

    Criteria for Ramsar Site Designation:

    A wetland must meet at least one of the following 9 criteria:

    1. Unique or rare wetland type.
    2. Habitat for endangered, vulnerable, or endemic species.
    3. Crucial for migratory waterbirds.
    4. High ecological, hydrological, or biodiversity value.
    5. Supports ecosystem services (e.g., flood control, water purification).
    6. Provides cultural or spiritual value.
    7. Serves sustainable community livelihoods.
    8. Holds scientific or educational importance.
    9. Requires global cooperation due to threats.

    India and the Ramsar Convention:

    • Joined on: 1 February 1982.
    • First Ramsar Site: Chilika Lake (Odisha), 1981.
    • As of July 2025:
      • Total sites: 91
      • Total area: ~13.58 lakh hectares
      • % of India’s wetland area under Ramsar: ~10%
    • Top States: Tamil Nadu: 20 sites (highest); Uttar Pradesh: 10 sites
    • Note: India has never chaired a Ramsar COP session.

    Global Snapshot and Other Facts:

    • Total Members: 171 countries.
    • Leading Countries:
      • United Kingdom: 175 sites (most)
      • Mexico: 142 sites
      • Bolivia: Largest area (~1.48 lakh sq. km under protection)
    • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on 2 February annually.
    • Montreux Record: Register for Ramsar sites under serious threat needing urgent conservation.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.

    2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.

    3. These Rules also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.

    Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • 150 years of Jim Corbett

    Why in the News?

    As India marks Jim Corbett’s 150th birth anniversary (1875–2025), it reflects on his legacy as a hunter, naturalist, author, and conservationist—after whom Corbett National Park is named.

    https://www.downtoearth.org.in/wildlife-biodiversity/150-years-of-jim-corbett-will-the-real-carpet-sahib-please-stand-up 

    Who was Jim Corbett?

    • Full Name: Edward James Corbett (1875–1955), nicknamed Carpet Sahib in Kumaon.
    • Profession: British hunter, naturalist, author, and later a wildlife conservationist.
    • Famous Books: Man-Eaters of Kumaon, The Man-Eating Leopard of Rudraprayag, My India, Jungle Lore, Tree Tops.
    • Hunter Turned Hero:
      • Known for tracking and killing man-eating tigers and leopards in Kumaon and Garhwal.
      • Used patient observation and deep knowledge of terrain and animal behaviour.
    • Shift to Conservation:
      • Grew concerned about dwindling tiger numbers and deforestation.
      • Advocated for wildlife protection and ecological balance.
    • Commemoration: India’s first national park was renamed Jim Corbett National Park in 1957 in his honour.

    Back2Basics: Jim Corbett National Park

    • Established: 1936 as Hailey National Park; later renamed in 1957.
    • Location: Nainital district, Uttarakhand; core of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
    • Historical Importance:
      • Launch site of Project Tiger in 1973, India’s flagship tiger conservation programme.
    • Geography:
      • Lies in Shivalik and Outer Himalayan foothills.
      • Rivers: Ramganga, Sonanadi, Mandal, Palain, and Kosi.
      • Area: Over 500 sq km (includes Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary as buffer).
    • Biodiversity:
      • Flora: Moist deciduous forest with Sal, Khair, and Sissoo; 600+ plant species.
      • Fauna: Over 230 tigers (highest density in the world), elephants, leopards, deer (sambar, chital, barking), sloth bears, wild boars, birds, and reptiles.

     

    [UPSC 2013] Consider the following pairs : National Park River flowing through the Park

    1. Corbett National Park : Ganga

    2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas

    3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri

    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) None*

     

  • UAV Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3

    Why in the News?

    DRDO has successfully test-fired the UAV-Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3.

    UAV Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3

    About ULPGM-V3:

    • Overview: It is a fire-and-forget air-to-surface missile developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
    • Variants: It is an upgraded version of V1 and V2, with improved range, autonomy, and targeting precision.
    • Development: Collaboration by Adani Defence, Bharat Dynamics, Newspace Research Technologies, and over 30 Indian MSMEs/startups.

    Key Features:

    • Weight: 12.5 kg
    • Range: 10 km (day), 2.5 km (night)
    • Accuracy: Passive homing infrared with HD dual-channel accuracy (~10 cm)
    • Warhead Options: Anti-armour, penetration-cum-blast, pre-fragmentation
    • Guidance: Fully autonomous with two-way datalink for mid-course updates
    • Environment: Operates in plains and high-altitude regions, day and night
    [UPSC 2025] With reference to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consider the following statements:

    I. All types of UAVs can do vertical landing. II. All types of UAVs can do automated hovering. III. All types of UAVs can use battery only as a source of power supply.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None *

     

  • AdFalciVax Vaccine for Malaria

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has introduced AdFalciVax, a new malaria vaccine candidate targeting Plasmodium falciparum.

    About AdFalciVax

    • Developer: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR); private partners will handle trials and manufacturing.
    • Vaccine Type: Chimeric recombinant vaccine targeting Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest malaria parasite.
    • Technology:
      • Circumsporozoite Protein (CSP): Offers direct protection to the vaccinated individual.
      • Pro6C Protein: A hybrid of Pfs230 and Pfs48/45 that blocks transmission via mosquitoes.
    • Key Advantages
      • Dual Benefit: Provides personal protection and reduces community transmission.
      • Full-length CSP: Promotes a stronger and longer immune response compared to current vaccines.
      • High Efficacy in Animals: Over 90% protection in animal models (human trials pending).
      • Stability: Contains alum as an adjuvant — safe, effective, and stable at room temperature for 9 months.

    Malaria Control in India:

    • Progress:
      • Malaria deaths reduced from 1,151 in 1995 to 83 in 2022 (National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme).
      • World Health Organization estimates are higher (5,511 deaths in 2022).
    • Current Limitation: India’s dominant malaria strain is Plasmodium vivax, which AdFalciVax does not target.

     

    [UPSC 2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine ?

    (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium*

    (b) Man does not develop, immunity to malaria during natural infection

    (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria

    (d) Man is only an intermediate host not the definitive host.

     

  • Financial Inclusion Index, 2025

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has announced that the Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index) for Financial Year (FY) 2025 has risen to 67.0, up from 64.2 in FY 2024.

    About Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index):

    • Developer: Created by the Reserve Bank of India to assess the extent of financial inclusion in India.
    • First Release: Published in August 2021 for the financial year ending March 2021.
    • Coverage: Encompasses five key sectors—banking, investments, insurance, postal services, and pensions.
    • Scoring Scale: Ranges from 0 (total exclusion) to 100 (full inclusion).
    • Update Cycle: Updated annually in July; cumulative index with NO base year.
    • Indicators: Based on 97 indicators across all five sectors to ensure comprehensive assessment.
    • Key Parameters:
      1. Access (35%): Measures availability of financial infrastructure like bank branches, automated teller machines, and postal outlets.
      2. Usage (45%): Tracks frequency of use of services like savings, loans, insurance, and pension schemes.
      3. Quality (20%): Assesses financial literacy, consumer protection, equity, and service reliability.

    India’s Performance Over the Years:

    • March 2017: Index at 43.4, reflecting the initial phase of inclusion efforts.
    • March 2021: Rose to 53.9, due to the expansion of banking and digital infrastructure.
    • March 2024: Improved to 64.2, with broader access and increased adoption of financial services.
    • March 2025: Reached 67.0, driven by digital transactions, better service quality, and financial literacy campaigns.
    [UPSC 2016] The establishment of ‘Payment Banks’ is being allowed in India to promote financial inclusion. Which of the following statements is/are correct in this context?

    1. Mobile telephone companies and supermarket chains that are owned and controlled by residents are eligible to be promoters of Payment Banks

    2. Payment Banks can issue both credit cards and debit cards

    3. Payment Banks cannot undertake lending activities

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Coral Loss in Lakshadweep

    Why in the News?

    A 24-year-long study conducted by the Nature Conservation Foundation reveals that coral cover in Lakshadweep has declined by 50% since 1998.

    Coral Decline in Lakshadweep: Key Highlights

    • Study Duration: Based on a 24-year study (1998–2022).
    • Findings: 50% decline in live coral cover—from 37.2% to 19.6%.
    • Main Cause: Repeated marine heatwaves linked to climate change.
    • Study Locations: Monitored across Agatti, Kadmat, and Kavaratti atolls.
    • Response Clusters: Six coral groups identified based on:
      • Depth and wave exposure
      • Heat resistance and recovery patterns
    • Recovery Timeline: Requires at least 6 years without bleaching for healthy regeneration.

    Back2Basics: Corals and Coral Bleaching:

    • About: Corals are colonies of tiny animals called polyps, which build calcium carbonate skeletons.
    • Symbiotic Algae: Host zooxanthellae, microscopic algae that provide nutrients via photosynthesis.
    • Coral Types:
      • Hard Corals: Form reef structures (e.g., brain coral, staghorn coral).
      • Soft Corals: Flexible, grow on reef surfaces but do not build reefs.
    • Habitat Requirements:
      • Water Quality: Must be clean and low in sediment.
      • Temperature Range: Prefer 20–21°C.
      • Depth: Typically found in waters less than 90 metres deep.
      • Salinity: Optimal range is 27–30 parts per thousand (ppt).
      • Ocean Currents: Require nutrient-rich water flow.
    • Coral Bleaching:
      • Cause: Triggered by heat stress, pollution, or acidification, which drive algae out.
      • Effect: Coral turns white due to loss of algae; Loses its main food source. Dies if stress persists for long periods.
    [UPSC 2022] “Biorock Technology” is talked about in which one of the following situations?

    Options: (a) Restoration of damaged coral reefs * (b) Development of building materials using plant residues (c) Identification of areas for exploration/extraction of shale gas  (d) Providing salt licks for wild animals in forests

     

  • The reality of the changing dimensions of warfare

    Why in the News?

    India needs to urgently revamp its defence modernisation plans in the face of emerging challenges from China and Pakistan, especially after the India-Pakistan conflict of May 2025, which revealed gaps in India’s preparedness.

    How has warfare changed since the Cold War?

    • Shift from Large-Scale Wars to Regional Conflicts: After the Cold War, global tensions gave way to smaller, localized wars rather than global showdowns. Eg: The Gulf War (1991) marked the start of precision-based, limited military operations instead of prolonged world wars.
    • Rise of Technology-Driven Warfare: Modern conflicts rely heavily on AI, drones, cyber tools, and precision weapons instead of traditional manpower-heavy combat. Eg: The Russia-Ukraine war has prominently used drones, cyberattacks, and satellite-guided missile systems.
    • Multi-Domain and Asymmetric Warfare: Warfare now involves land, air, sea, cyber, and space, blending conventional and irregular tactics. Eg: The use of cyberattacks alongside physical strikes in Israel-Hamas and India-Pakistan skirmishes reflects this evolution.

    Why is traditional military power becoming outdated?

    • Emergence of Asymmetric Threats: Traditional armies are less effective against non-state actors, insurgents, and cyber warriors who don’t follow conventional battle rules. Eg: The Taliban’s return in Afghanistan despite 20 years of U.S. military presence shows the limits of conventional power.
    • Dominance of Cyber and Information Warfare: Modern conflicts are increasingly fought in the digital space through disinformation, cyberattacks, and AI tools. Eg: The Russia-Ukraine war witnessed widespread cyber sabotage, showing that keyboard warriors can now cripple systems without firing a bullet.
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Smart Technologies: Drones, automated systems, and AI-based surveillance offer greater impact at lower cost than tanks or large troop deployments. Eg: The use of Turkish Bayraktar drones in Ukraine showed how low-cost tech can neutralize expensive military hardware.

    What challenges does India face in countering China’s military rise?

    • Infrastructure Gap along the Border: China has superior military infrastructure in Tibet and Xinjiang, including roads, airstrips, and logistics networks, giving it faster mobilization capability. Eg: The LAC standoff in Eastern Ladakh (2020) exposed India’s slower troop movement due to underdeveloped border infrastructure.
    • Defence Budget and Modernisation Lag: India’s defence spending is lower in proportion to GDP compared to China, limiting rapid modernisation and procurement of high-end military tech. Eg: China’s 2024 defence budget is over 3 times larger than India’s, enabling faster upgrades in hypersonic weaponsand naval expansion.
    • Two-Front Security Challenge: India faces the risk of simultaneous conflicts with China and Pakistan, straining its military resources and strategic planning. Eg: Joint China-Pakistan military exercises and China’s presence in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) increase pressure on India’s western and northern fronts.

    How should India update its defence strategy? (Way forward)

    • Focus on Cyber and Space Capabilities: India must strengthen its cyber defence, space surveillance, and satellite-based warfare tools to deal with non-traditional threats. Eg: The formation of Defence Cyber Agency and Defence Space Agency is a step towards tackling emerging cyber and space-based challenges.
    • Promote Indigenous Defence Innovation: Shifting from imports to Make in India and Aatmanirbhar Bharat in defence production is vital for self-reliance and strategic autonomy. Eg: Development of Tejas fighter jets and DRDO’s missile systems shows India’s move toward building its own defence ecosystem.
    • Modernise Armed Forces with Smart Technology: Upgrading with AI-enabled systems, drones, and robotics will enhance operational efficiency in both border and hybrid warfare. Eg: Indian Army’s deployment of drones for surveillance in the LAC region demonstrates the use of tech-driven force multipliers.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2022] What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.

    Linkage: The article highlights that “The advent of cyber and Artificial Intelligence (AI) has seen battle elds morph into complex multi-domain conflict zones, involving advanced technologies, AI and cyber warfare methodologies”. It further emphasizes that “digital strategies and autonomous systems are tending to make traditional concepts of how battles are won… outdated” and that “Future warfare is increasingly set to become digitally autonomous and interconnected.

  • Spare live animals, move to biological models

    Why in the News?

    There is growing ethical and scientific concern over the continued use of animal testing in laboratories, as evidence mounts that such methods are often ineffective in predicting human responses. The legal and moral shift in India specifically, an amendment to the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, to promote the use of bioartificial models over live animals in experimentation.

    What about the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960?

    The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 is an Indian law enacted to prevent the infliction of unnecessary pain or suffering on animals and to promote their well-being.

    Key features:

    • Prohibits cruelty towards animals such as beating, kicking, overloading, or mutilating them.
    • Establishes the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) to advise the government on animal protection laws and promote animal welfare.
    • Allows for penalties and punishment (fines or imprisonment) for violating its provisions, though critics say these are often outdated and too lenient.

    Why is an amendment to the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 legally and morally necessary in India?

    • Outdated Penalties and Definitions: The current Act imposes minimal fines (as low as ₹50), which fail to act as deterrents against cruelty. An amendment is needed to introduce stricter punishments and update definitions to match modern ethical standards.
    • Rising Incidents of Animal Abuse: With growing reports of gruesome cruelty (e.g., dog killings, abuse in labs), there is a need for laws that reflect the moral conscience of today’s society and recognize animal sentience.
    • Global Commitments and Standards: India aspires to be a leader in global bioethics and sustainability. Amending the Act would align national laws with international treaties like the Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare, enhancing India’s moral and legal credibility.

    How can regenerative medicine and tissue engineering reduce animal testing?

    • Development of Human-like Organ Models: Scientists can grow 3D human tissues (like liver, heart, or skin) in the lab, which can be used to test drug toxicity and effectiveness. Eg: The “liver-on-a-chip” developed by Emulate Inc. mimics human liver functions and replaces animal use in drug screening.
    • Personalized Disease Models: Patient-derived stem cells can be used to create tissue models that reflect individual genetic profiles, allowing more accurate predictions of drug reactions without animals. Eg: In cystic fibrosis research, mini lungs (organoids) grown from patient cells are used to test responses to various treatments.
    • Accelerated Drug Development and Safety Testing: Tissue-engineered models provide faster and more ethical platforms for early-stage drug testing, reducing the need for preliminary animal trials. Eg: Skin tissue models like EpiDerm are widely used to test cosmetics and chemicals for irritation and toxicity, replacing rabbit skin tests.

    What limitations exist in using animals for toxicity and medical research?

    • Biological Differences: Animals and humans often respond differently to substances, making results less reliable when applied to humans. Eg: A drug safe in mice might cause severe side effects in humans.
    • Inability to Replicate Human Diseases Accurately: Many complex human diseases like Alzheimer’s or cancer cannot be fully mimicked in animals, leading to incomplete or misleading data. Eg: Alzheimer’s treatments successful in animals have failed in human trials.

    Why is a change in societal values crucial for ensuring animal welfare in scientific practices?

    • Shifting Public Opinion Influences Policy: When society becomes more ethically aware about animal suffering, it puts pressure on governments and institutions to adopt humane research standards and fund alternatives to animal testing.
    • Promotes a Culture of Compassion in Science: Changing values encourage scientists to prioritise non-animal methods and view animal welfare as integral to ethical and responsible research, not just a legal requirement.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • Ban on Animal Testing for Cosmetics: In 2014, India became the first country in Asia to ban animal testing for cosmetic products and ingredients.
    • Promotion of Alternative Methods: The government supports institutions like the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and National Centre for Alternatives to Animal Experiments (NCAAE) to develop in-vitro and computer-based models.
    • Regulatory Reforms: Revisions in Drugs and Cosmetics Rules and CPCSEA guidelines aim to reduce, refine, and replace animal use by encouraging ethical review and stricter compliance protocols.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Investment in Alternatives: Increase funding for regenerative medicine, organoids, and AI-based simulations to provide scalable, ethical, and scientifically advanced testing methods.
    • Enhance Public Awareness and Education: Launch nationwide campaigns to promote animal ethics in science, encouraging academic institutions and industries to adopt humane practices and reduce dependence on animal models.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2017] Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments?

    Linkage: The article explicitly advocates for a shift from animal experimentation to methods like tissue engineering or regenerative medicine. Stem cell therapy is a direct application and a significant development within the field of regenerative medicine.

  • Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India: World Bank Report (2024)

    Why in the News?

    The World Bank’s report, “Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India”, warns that climate risks like extreme heat and floods threaten India’s cities, despite their role as economic growth engines.

    About the ‘Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India’ Report

    • Prepared By: World Bank in collaboration with the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
    • Focus: Evaluates Indian cities’ exposure to climate risks like heatwaves and urban flooding
    • Scope: Covers 24 cities with deeper analysis of Chennai, Indore, New Delhi, Lucknow, Surat, and Thiruvananthapuram
    • Support: Backed by Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR)

    Key Highlights:

    • Urban Growth:
      • 70% of new jobs to emerge in urban areas by 2030
      • Urban population to nearly double to 951 million by 2050
      • Estimated housing demand: 144 million new homes by 2070
    • Climate Vulnerabilities:
      • Urban heat: City temperatures rising by 3–4°C due to the heat island effect
      • Flood risk: Rapid construction limiting natural drainage and stormwater absorption
    • Investment Needs: $2.4 trillion required by 2050 for low-carbon, climate-resilient infrastructure
    • Recommendations:
      • Promote cool roofs, urban green spaces, and early warning systems
      • Invest in energy-efficient housing, flood-resilient transport, and waste systems
      • Strengthen urban financial systems and incentivize private participation

    Back2Basics: World Bank

    • Overview: A global development organisation supporting economic progress in developing nations
    • Founded: 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference
    • Headquarters: Washington, D.C., United States
    • Members: 189 countries
    • India and the WB:
      • India is a founding member of the IBRD and currently participates in four out of the five World Bank Group entities.
      • India’s first World Bank loan, in 1948, was for railway rehabilitation.
    • Constituent Institutions:
      • IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
      • IDA – International Development Association
      • IFC – International Finance Corporation
      • MIGA – Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
      • ICSID – International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
    • Key Reports:
      • World Development Report
      • Global Economic Prospects
      • Ease of Doing Business Index (now replaced)
      • Business Ready (B-READY)

     

    [UPSC 2025] The World Bank warned that India could become one of the first places where wet-bulb temperatures routinely exceed 35°C. Which of the following statements best reflect(s) the implication of the above-said report?

    I. Peninsular India will most likely suffer from flooding, tropical cyclones and droughts. II. The survival of animals including humans will be affected as shedding of their body heat through perspiration becomes difficult.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) I only (b) II only* (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II

     

  • Javelin Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs)

    Why in the News?

    India has formally submitted a Letter of Request (LoR) to the United States seeking the co-production of Javelin anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) under the ‘Make in India’ initiative.

    Javelin Anti-Tank Guided Missiles (ATGMs)

    About the Javelin Missile:

    • About: American-made man-portable anti-tank guided missile (ATGM).
    • Developers: Jointly developed by Raytheon and Lockheed Martin.
    • Purpose:
      • Defeats heavily armoured vehicles such as main battle tanks.
      • Effective against bunkers, fortifications, and helicopters.
    • Operational Since: Entered service with the U.S. military in 1996.

    Key Features:

    • Range:
      • Standard effective range: 2.5 km.
      • Advanced variants: Can reach up to 4 km.
    • Weight: Approximately 5.11 kg.
    • Technology:
      • Employs a “fire-and-forget” system.
      • No need for operator guidance after launch.
    • Target Engagement Modes:
      • Direct attack mode: For conventional engagement.
      • Top-attack mode: Hits the weaker top armour of tanks.
    • Mobility & Safety:
      • Soldiers can relocate or reload immediately after launch.
      • Uses infrared guidance allowing quick post-launch cover.
    [UPSC 2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?

    Options: (a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti-missile system* (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea