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GS Paper: GS3

  • Navratna Status for IRCTC and IRFC 

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC) and the Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) have been granted Navratna status, making them the 25th and 26th Navratna companies in India.

    Other Navratna Companies in Indian Railways

    • Container Corporation of India (CONCOR): Multimodal logistics.
    • Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd (RVNL): Infrastructure expansion.
    • RITES Ltd: Transport consultancy.
    • IRCON International Ltd: Railway and highway construction.
    • RailTel Corporation of India Ltd: IT & communication services.

    What is Navratna Status?

    • Introduced in 1997, the Navratna scheme identifies high-performing CPSEs and grants them financial and operational independence.
    • It allows selected companies to compete globally while maintaining public sector ownership.
    • Categories of PSUs in India:
      • Maharatna:  Largest CPSEs with highest financial powers.
      • Navratna: Mid-tier CPSEs with strategic autonomy.
      • Miniratna: Emerging CPSEs with limited independence.

    Eligibility Criteria for Navratna Status:

    A CPSE must-

    • Be a Miniratna-I company with an Excellent or Very Good rating in its MoU performance in three out of five years.
    • Achieve a composite score of 60+ based on:
      • Net Profit to Net Worth
      • Manpower Cost to Total Cost of Production
      • Profitability Ratios (PBDIT & PBIT)
      • Earnings Per Share
      • Inter-Sectoral Performance

    Benefits of Navratna Status:

    • Investment Autonomy: Can invest ₹1,000 crore or 15% of net worth in a single project without government approval.
    • Strategic Expansion: Freedom to form joint ventures, subsidiaries, and acquisitions.
    • Operational Flexibility: Can make independent business and investment decisions.
    • Enhanced Market Position: Attracts more investors and improves stock performance.

    PYQ:

    [2011] Why is the Government of India disinvesting its equity in the Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs)?

    1. The Government intends to use the revenue earned from the disinvestment mainly to pay back the external debt.

    2. The Government no longer intends to retain the management control of the CPSEs.

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Species in News: Marbled Cat

    Species in News: Marbled Cat

    Why in the News?

    The elusive marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata) has been spotted in Dehing Patkai National Park in Assam’s Tinsukia district.

    About Marbled Cat

    • The marbled cat is a small wild cat species native to South and Southeast Asia.
    • It belongs to the Felidae family and is closely related to the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) and the bay cat (Catopuma badia).
    • The species was first described in 1836 by British zoologist William Charles Linnaeus Martin.
    • It is characterised by brown, gray, or yellowish fur with distinctive black spots, marbled patterns, and stripes for camouflage.
    • It is found in dense tropical and subtropical forests at elevations up to 2,500 meters.
    • It primarily inhabits rainforests, evergreen forests, and mountainous terrain.
    • It is arboreal, spending a significant amount of time in trees.
    • It is nocturnal and crepuscular, meaning it is most active at dawn and dusk.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Red List Status: Near Threatened (NT) due to habitat loss and fragmentation.
      • CITES: Appendix I

    About Dehing Patkai National Park

    • Dehing Patkai NP is located in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts of Assam, India, near the border with Arunachal Pradesh.
    • It spans an area of 231.65 km² and is part of the Dehing Patkai Elephant Reserve. It was upgraded to a national park in 2020 and officially notified in 2021.
    • The park features the largest stretch of lowland rainforests in India, including Dipterocarp trees, orchids, and medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina and Acorus calamus.
    • The park is home to diverse wildlife, including Bengal tigers, leopards, clouded leopards, Asian elephants, and Hoolock gibbons.
      • It is unique for hosting seven species of wild cats.
    • The Dehing River flows through the park, nourishing its forests and contributing to the biodiversity.
    • Indigenous communities such as the Tai Phake, Khamti, and Singpho tribes have lived in the area for generations, maintaining a close relationship with the forest.
    • The park is situated in the Patkai Hills region, part of the Indo-Myanmar biodiversity hotspot, known for its rich biodiversity.
    • Known as the Amazon of the East, Dehing Patkai National Park is famous for its pristine rainforest ecosystems and significant biodiversity.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following National Parks has a climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, temperate and arctic?

    (a) Khangchendzonga National Park

    (b) Nandadevi National Park

    (c) Neora Valley National Park

    (d) Namdapha National Park

     

  • First Comprehensive Survey of River Dolphins in India

    Why in the News?

    India’s first-ever comprehensive river dolphin survey conducted under Project Dolphin (2020) has estimated a population of 6,327 dolphins, primarily across the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus River basins.

    First Comprehensive Survey of River Dolphins in India

    River Dolphins in India:

    Species Habitat Conservation Status Key Features & Threats
    Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)

    		 Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna & Karnaphuli river systems (India, Bangladesh, Nepal) IUCN: Endangered
    WPA, 1972: Schedule I    		 Known as “Susu”, India’s National Aquatic Animal in 2009. Faces threats from pollution, habitat fragmentation, and accidental bycatch.

    Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Bihar) – Only dolphin sanctuary in India.
    Indus River Dolphin (Platanista minor)

    		 Indus River (Pakistan) & Beas River (India) IUCN: Endangered
    WPA, 1972: Schedule I    		 One of the rarest dolphins, facing population decline due to water diversion, dam construction, and habitat degradation.

    Beas Conservation Reserve (Punjab) – Focused on Indus River Dolphin protection.
    Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris)

    		 Chilika Lake (India) & rivers of South & Southeast Asia IUCN: Endangered
    WPA, 1972: Schedule I    		 Known for “spy-hopping” behavior (rising vertically to observe surroundings). Threatened by fishing nets and habitat destruction.

    Key Highlights of the Survey

    • The survey estimated the Ganges River dolphin population at 6,324, with Uttar Pradesh (2,397) and Bihar (2,220) recording the highest numbers, while the Brahmaputra basin had 635 dolphins, indicating a stable population.
    • The Indus River dolphin population was found to be critically low, with only 3 individuals recorded in the Beas River in Punjab, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts.
    • Key habitats were identified, with the highest dolphin concentrations observed in the Bhind-Pachnada stretch of the Chambal River and the Chausa-Manihari stretch of the Ganga.
    • Dolphins were found to prefer deep water zones, confluences, mid-channel islands, and meandering sections of rivers, indicating specific habitat requirements.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following is the national aquatic animal of India?

    (a) Saltwater crocodile
    (b) Olive ridley turtle
    (c) Gangetic dolphin
    (d) Gharial

     

  • MISHTI Scheme

    Why in the News?

    Gujarat has emerged as the national leader in mangrove afforestation, covering 19,020 hectares in just two years under the Central Government’s MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes) scheme.

    About the MISHTI Scheme

    • The MISHTI scheme was launched on June 5, 2023, to restore 540 sq. km of mangrove forests.
    • It aims to restore and expand 540 sq. km mangrove forests across 9 states and 3 union territories over a 5-year period (2023–28).
    • It aligns with India’s commitment to the Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) at COP27 (2022, Egypt).
    • The scheme is funded through MGNREGS, CAMPA Fund, and other sources, ensuring community participation.
    • It focuses on Sundarbans (West Bengal), Hooghly Estuary, and other coastal and wetland ecosystems.

    Gujarat’s Leadership in Mangrove Afforestation

    • Gujarat has emerged as India’s top state in mangrove afforestation, covering 19,020 hectares (190 sq. km) in just two years under MISHTI.
    • The Gulf of Kutch (799 sq. km) leads in coverage, followed by the Gulf of Khambhat and Dumas-Ubhrat belt (134 sq. km).
    • Gujarat’s 1,650 km-long coastline is home to mangroves, coral reefs, and seagrasses, making it an
    • It aims to expand mangrove cover by an additional 350 sq. km, strengthening climate resilience and coastal biodiversity.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest?

    (a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
    (b) South-West Bengal
    (c) Southern Saurashtra
    (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands

     

  • What is Planetary Alignment?

    Why in the News?

    On February 29, 2024, skywatchers worldwide witnessed a rare planetary alignment (parade) with seven planets—Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune, Mercury, Saturn, and Venus—lining up in the night sky.

    What is Planetary Alignment?

    • A planetary alignment occurs when multiple planets in the Solar System appear to line up in the sky as seen from Earth.
    • This phenomenon happens because planets orbit the Sun in a flat, disc-shaped plane called the ecliptic.
    • Although planets remain millions of kilometers apart, they seem to form a straight line from Earth’s perspective due to optical illusion and perspective.
    • The term “planet parade” is also used to describe this occurrence when multiple planets become visible in the sky at the same time.
    • Types of Planetary Alignments:
    1. Conjunction: Two or more planets appear close to each other in the sky.
    2. Small Alignment: Three planets align in a visible line.
    3. Large Alignment: Four or more planets appear aligned from Earth’s perspective.
    4. Full Alignment: All eight planets of the Solar System appear in a single line (very rare).

    How often do Planetary Alignments occur?

    • Planetary alignments are not uncommon, but their rarity depends on the number of planets involved.
      • Two- or Three-Planet Alignments: Occur multiple times a year.
      • Four- or Five-Planet Alignments: Visible every few years.
      • Six- or Seven-Planet Alignments: Appear every few decades.
      • Full Alignment (All Eight Planets): Extremely rare, occurs once every 170–200 years.
    • Recent & Upcoming Alignments:
      • August 2025: Expected four-planet alignment.
      • May 2492: The next predicted full planetary alignment of all eight planets.

    PYQ:

    [2019] On 21st June, the Sun:

    (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

  • Research team takes big step towards making a Bose Metal

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have recently discovered a potential new state of matter, the Bose metal, found between a regular metal and a superconductor, with evidence of this phase in Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) by a team of Chinese and Japanese scientists.

    What is a Bose Metal?

    • A Bose metal is a hypothetical anomalous metallic state where Cooper pairs (electron pairs) form but do not transition into a superconducting state.
    • This state exists between a normal metal and a superconductor, challenging traditional theories of condensed matter physics.
    • In simple terms, a Bose metal is a material where:
      • Electrons pair up into Cooper pairs (like in superconductors).
      • However, these Cooper pairs fail to achieve long-range coherence, meaning the material remains metallic instead of becoming superconducting.
      • This results in partial electrical resistance, unlike superconductors that have zero resistance.
    • Recent experimental studies suggest their existence in materials like Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) when subjected to specific conditions, such as thin layers and applied magnetic fields.

    Key Features:

    • Intermediate State: Exists between a metal and a superconductor.
    • Cooper Pair Formation: Electrons form pairs, but they don’t condense into superconductivity.
    • Anomalous Conductivity: Higher than normal metals but not infinite like superconductors.
    • Quantum Fluctuations: Strong phase fluctuations disrupt Cooper pair coherence.
    • Hall Resistance Vanishing: Indicates charge transport by Cooper pairs rather than individual electrons.
    • Observed in Thin 2D Materials: Seen in ultra-thin films of superconductors under specific conditions.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste?

    1. Beryllium
    2. Cadmium
    3. Chromium
    4. Heptachlor
    5. Mercury
    6. Lead
    7. Plutonium

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
    (b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
    (c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • Study identifies sources of PM2.5 in northern India

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published in Nature Communications has analyzed the sources and health impacts of PM2.5 pollution in Northern India, particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

    About PM2.5

    • PM2.5 (Particulate Matter ≤2.5 microns) refers to tiny air pollutants small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream.
    • These fine particles come from both natural sources (like dust storms and wildfires) and human activities (like burning fossil fuels and industrial emissions).
    • PM2.5 poses severe health risks, contributing to respiratory diseases, heart conditions, and reduced lung function.
    • The oxidative potential of PM2.5 is an important indicator of its toxicity and ability to cause cellular damage.

    Key Findings of the Study

    1. Major Sources of PM2.5 in Northern India:
    • The study analyzed PM2.5 pollution across five locations in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, including Delhi and Kanpur.
    • Delhi: PM2.5 is mainly from vehicular emissions, fossil fuel burning, and residential heating.
    • Outside Delhi: It consists of ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, and biomass-burning aerosols.
    1. PM2.5 Toxicity and Health Risks:
    • PM2.5 toxicity is linked to organic aerosols from inefficient combustion of biomass and fossil fuels.
    • Traffic emissions and residential fuel burning significantly contribute to PM2.5-related health risks.
    1. Traffic as a Major Contributor:
    • Hydrocarbon-like organic aerosols (HOA) from vehicular emissions were highest at urban roadside sites in Delhi (8 μg/m³).
    • HOA accounts for 50% of fossil fuel-derived aerosols, increasing to 40% in warmer months.
    1. Winter Pollution Due to Residential Heating and Cooking:
    • Cow dung combustion for heating and cooking in winter increases organic aerosols, with levels 10 times higher than in summer due to biomass burning and shallow boundary layers.
    1. India’s PM2.5 Toxicity Among the Highest Globally:
    • The study found that PM2.5 oxidative potential (toxicity) in Indian cities is up to 5 times higher than in Chinese and European cities.

    PYQ:

    [2016] In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index?

    1. Carbon dioxide
    2. Carbon monoxide
    3. Nitrogen dioxide
    4. Sulphur dioxide
    5. Methane

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
    (c) 1, 4 and 5 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

  • ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1

    Why in the News?

    US’s Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 1 successfully landed on the Moon, becoming the second private mission to do so and the first to land upright.

    What is ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1?

    • Blue Ghost Mission 1 is a private lunar landing mission by Firefly Aerospace under NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.
    • It was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9.
    • It successfully landed on the Moon, at Mons Latreille, Mare Crisium.
    • The mission is designed to operate for 14 Earth days (one lunar day).

    Key Features of Blue Ghost Mission 1:

    • Carries 10 scientific instruments, including a lunar soil analyzer, a radiation-tolerant computer, and a GPS-based navigation experiment to test satellite navigation on the Moon.
    • Equipped with a high-definition imaging system to capture a lunar eclipse (March 14, 2024) and lunar sunset (March 16, 2024).
    • Successfully navigated a rocky and cratered surface using hazard-avoidance technology, slowing from thousands of miles per hour to just two mph before touchdown.
    • The lander is golden in color and about the size of a hippopotamus.
    • It supports Artemis missions by testing lunar technologies and reducing costs for future human exploration.

    PYQ:

    [2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

    (a) Electric plane tested by NASA

    (b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

    (c) Space observatory launched by China

    (d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

     

  • [1st March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The steps that will shape India’s AI ambition

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020)

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution)  (2020) and the development of IT industries  (2021).

    Despite a skilled workforce, Indian firms often lose AI deals due to capability gaps. In the intense AI race against Silicon Valley, China, and Southeast Asia, India must focus on fostering innovation and ensuring market regulations do not hinder its progress.

    Today’s editorial talks about the AI-related challenges in India. This content would help in GS Paper 3 mains.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    In Bengaluru, Indian developers face tough competition from China for AI projects. To lead the AI race, India must focus on supportive regulations and enhancing technological capabilities.

    What are the key issues related to Artificial Intelligence (AI) in India?

    • Job Displacement and Skill Gap: Increased AI adoption threatens to automate routine jobs, leading to large-scale unemployment and requiring a workforce with advanced digital skills. Example: The NASSCOM report (2023) highlighted that 69% of Indian tech workers need to upskill in AI and machine learning to remain employable as automation rises.
    • Algorithmic Bias and Ethical Concerns: AI systems can reflect and amplify societal biases, leading to discriminatory outcomes in hiring, lending, and public services. Example: In 2023, the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) faced criticism when its AI-based screening system allegedly disadvantaged candidates from marginalized backgrounds during preliminary evaluations.
    • Misinformation and Deepfake Threats: AI-generated misinformation and deepfakes undermine public trust, pose security risks, and impact democratic processes. Example: During the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, deepfake videos impersonating political leaders circulated widely on social media, raising concerns about election manipulation.
    • Regulatory Uncertainty and Compliance Costs: The lack of a unified AI policy and fragmented regulations create legal ambiguity, increasing compliance burdens for Indian startups. Example: In 2023, Indian app developers filed a complaint with the Competition Commission of India (CCI) against Google for restrictive AI-related practices on the Play Store, citing unfair competition.
    • Global Competitiveness and Innovation Lag: Over-regulation and high compliance costs could hinder AI innovation, making India less competitive against global leaders like the U.S. and China. Example: India’s AI startup investments lag behind China and the U.S., with China attracting four times more AI funding in 2023, according to a Stanford AI Index report.

    Where does India stand in the global Artificial Intelligence (AI) race?

    • Emerging AI Hub with Growing Investments: India is positioning itself as an emerging AI hub with increasing investments in AI research and development, but it still lags behind global leaders like the U.S. and China. Example: According to the Stanford AI Index Report 2023, India ranked fifth globally in AI research output but attracted significantly less AI funding compared to China and the U.S.
    • Government Initiatives to Boost AI Innovation: India has launched several initiatives to promote AI adoption, such as the “National Program on AI” and the establishment of AI research centers to enhance innovation and application. Example: In 2023, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) introduced the “IndiaAI” mission to promote AI-based solutions in healthcare, agriculture, and education.
    • Challenges in Global Competitiveness: Despite having a large talent pool, India faces challenges in scaling AI innovation due to fragmented regulations, limited high-performance computing resources, and competition from advanced economies. Example: While India produced over 20,000 AI and machine learning professionals in 2023, its AI exports remain limited compared to China’s dominance in AI-driven hardware and cloud solutions.

    What is the current regulatory framework for Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

    • Existing Laws Governing AI Use: India does not have a dedicated AI law but regulates AI through existing legal frameworks like the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000, which governs data protection, cybersecurity, and intermediary liability.
    • Sector-Specific Guidelines: Various government bodies have issued guidelines for AI applications in specific sectors. For example: RBI Guidelines for AI in financial services (e.g., credit scoring) and Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) recommendations on AI in data privacy and telecommunications.
    • National Strategy on AI: The government launched the National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (NITI Aayog, 2018) to guide AI research, ethical standards, and public-sector AI deployment. Example: Under the IndiaAI Mission (2023), the government aims to promote responsible AI use while fostering innovation across industries.
    • Competition and Data Protection Framework: The Competition Commission of India (CCI) monitors anti-competitive practices by tech firms using AI algorithms. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 regulates how AI systems process personal data. Example: In 2023, the CCI investigated Google for alleged AI-related anti-competitive practices on the Play Store.
    • AI Ethics and Responsible Use: Guidelines on the ethical use of AI emphasize transparency, fairness, and accountability without imposing ex-ante (preemptive) regulation. Example: In 2023, the Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) released advisory notes on preventing algorithmic bias and ensuring explainability in AI decisions.

    Way forward: 

    • Comprehensive AI Policy Framework: Establish a unified and adaptive AI policy focusing on ethical guidelines, data privacy, and accountability to balance innovation with public interest.
    • Investment in AI Infrastructure and Skill Development: Enhance funding for AI research, expand high-performance computing resources, and implement large-scale reskilling programs to bridge the skill gap and improve global competitiveness.

  • ‘Kundi’ Traditional Water Harvesting

    Why in the News?

    With summers nearing, the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan particularly in Churu, Jaisalmer, and Barmer districts largely rely on ‘Kundi’ system of traditional rainwater harvesting.

    kundi

    What is Kundi System?

    • Found in Churu, Rajasthan, kundis (or kunds) are traditional rainwater harvesting structures designed for storing drinking water.
    • A circular or rectangular pit, often lined with bricks or stones, is dug into the ground.
    • Rainwater is collected through sloped catchments and funneled into the kundi for storage.
    • A lid or stone slab covers the pit to prevent contamination and evaporation.
    • These structures help communities survive in regions with scarce groundwater and unpredictable rainfall.

    Other Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India

    Khadin (Rajasthan) Earthen embankment (bund) built across slopes to retain surface runoff for moisture conservation and groundwater recharge, used since the 15th century.
    Johads (Rajasthan, Haryana) Small crescent-shaped embankments that store rainwater, recharge groundwater, prevent runoff, and improve water availability.
    Baolis / Stepwells (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, MP) Deep stepwells with stairs leading to groundwater storage, used for drinking, irrigation, and bathing; famous examples include Rani ki Vav (UNESCO site) and Agrasen ki Baoli.
    Virdas (Gujarat – Kutch region) Shallow wells dug in depressions to separate fresh rainwater from saline groundwater, used by Maldhari pastoralists for drinking and livestock.
    Tankas (Rajasthan, Gujarat) Circular underground tanks built in homes and temples for storing rainwater; lined with lime for purification, found in Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Dwarka.
    Zabo (Nagaland) Terraced ponds built on hill slopes to collect rainwater for drinking, irrigation, and livestock, preventing soil erosion and increasing groundwater recharge.
    Kuls (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K) Small channels (kuls) diverting glacial meltwater to fields for irrigation, made of stones, wood, and mud, and managed by local communities.
    Ahar-Pyne (Bihar, Jharkhand) Ancient system from the Mauryan period, where reservoirs (Ahar) collect rainwater, and channels (Pyne) distribute it for paddy cultivation.
    Eri (Tamil Nadu) Interconnected chain of tanks developed during the Chola period for irrigation, groundwater recharge, and flood control, still supporting agriculture.
    Surangam (Kerala, Karnataka) Horizontal tunnels dug into hillsides to extract water from aquifers, similar to Iran’s Qanat system, common in Malabar and Kasargod.
    Phad Irrigation (Maharashtra) Community-managed canal irrigation system drawing water from rivers, used in drought-prone areas, managed by a village council (patkari system).

     

    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term ‘Araghatta refers to:

    (a) Bonded labour

    (b) Land grants made to military officers

    (c) Waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

    (d)  Wasteland converted to cultivated land