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GS Paper: GS3

  • [pib] Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI)

    Why in the News?

    The Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) recently organized Prani Mitra and Jeev Daya Award Ceremony in New Delhi.

    • Prani Mitra Awards were established in 1966 to honor individuals excelling in animal welfare and protection.
      • Since 1966, 54 individuals have received this award for their remarkable service.
    • Jeev Daya Awards, instituted in 2001, acknowledge efforts in animal rescue, rehabilitation, and welfare education.

    About the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI)

    • The AWBI is a statutory advisory body under the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying.
    • It was established in 1962 under Section 4 of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960, with Rukmini Devi Arundale as its first chairperson.
    • Headquarters: Ballabhgarh, Haryana (previously in Chennai).
    • Composition: 28 members serving for a period of three years.
    • Jurisdiction: Initially under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, later moved to the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, and is now managed by the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying.
    • Functions of AWBI:
      • Recognition of Animal Welfare Organizations (AWOs): Grants recognition to organizations meeting the Board’s guidelines.
      • Financial Assistance: Provides funds for shelters, cattle rescue, ambulances, and birth control programs.
      • Policy and Legal Advocacy: Proposes changes in animal welfare laws and offers guidance to law enforcement agencies.
      • Awareness and Education: Conducts educational programs, workshops, and publications on animal welfare.
      • Monitoring Animals in Research & Entertainment: Instrumental in setting up CPCSEA (Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals) and implementing Performing Animals Rules (2001, amended 2005).
      • Activism & Legal Rights for Animals: Successfully fought in 2014 (AWBI vs. Nagaraja case) for recognizing fundamental rights of animals under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following statements:

    1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body.

    3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • National Science Day

    Why in the News?

    February 28 is observed as National Science Day in India to commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. It is the only Nobel achieved by an Indian while working in India.

    About National Science Day

    • National Science Day is celebrated in India on February 28 every year.
    • It marks the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman on February 28, 1928.
    • The GoI declared this day as National Science Day in 1986 to promote scientific awareness.
    • The primary objective of the day is to promote scientific temper, encourage research, and recognize India’s contributions to science.
    • Schools, colleges, and research institutions organize seminars, science exhibitions, and debates to celebrate this day.
    • The theme for National Science Day 2024 is “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science & Innovation for Viksit Bharat.”

    Who was C.V. Raman?

    • Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was an Indian physicist born on November 7, 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.
    • He completed his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Physics from Presidency College, Madras.
    • He initially worked as an Assistant Accountant General but continued his passion for physics through research.
    • In 1917, he became a professor at Calcutta University and conducted groundbreaking experiments.
    • He established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore in 1948, which became a major center for scientific research.

    Contributions of C.V. Raman

    • Raman Effect (1928): Proved that light changes wavelength when scattered by molecules.
      • Inspired by the blue color of the Mediterranean Sea, disproving the earlier sky-reflection theory.
    • Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930, becoming India’s first Nobel laureate in science.
    • Conducted research on vibrations of musical instruments like the veena, tabla, and mridangam.
    • Raman Spectroscopy is widely used in chemistry, physics, medicine, and space exploration.
      • Used by NASA in Mars Rover missions for mineral analysis.
    • He established the Raman Research Institute to promote advanced scientific research in India.
    • He contributed to strengthening India’s scientific infrastructure and mentored future physicists.

    PYQ:

    [2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:

    (a) S. Ramanujan

    (b) S. Chandrasekhar

    (c) S. N. Bose

    (d) C. V. Raman

     

  • Species in news: Doomsday Fish

    Why in the News?

    Recent sightings of the rare oarfish, also known as the “Doomsday Fish,” near the shores of Baja California Sur, Mexico, have sparked speculation and social media frenzy.

    About the ‘Doomsday Fish’

    • Japanese Folklore calls the oarfish “Ryugu no tsukai” or “Sea God’s Palace Messenger” and believes its rare appearance signals an impending natural calamity.
    • The belief gained strength in 2011 when multiple oarfish washed ashore in Japan just before the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami (9.0 magnitude).
    • Some cultures also consider the oarfish a messenger of the deep, warning humans of major disturbances in the ocean.

    Popular Legends

    • Some scientists suggest that deep-sea fishlike oarfish may be sensitive to underwater vibrations from fault lines and could surface before an earthquake.
      • However, no conclusive scientific evidence supports this theory.
    • Powerful ocean currents, storms, or underwater disturbances may push weakened or dying oarfish toward the surface.
    • The El Niño phenomenon or changes in water temperature might also affect their movements.
    • A 2019 study in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America found no relationship between oarfish sightings and earthquakes in Japan.

    PYQ:

    [2017] Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the population of species of butterflies, what could be its likely consequence/consequences?

    1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely affected.

    2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal infections of some cultivated plants.

    3. It could lead to a fall in the population of some species of wasps, spiders and birds.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • PUNCH Mission

    Why in the News?

    NASA is set to launch the Polarimetry to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission on February 28, 2025, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.

    About the PUNCH Mission

    • PUNCH Mission is a groundbreaking solar mission designed to study the Sun’s corona and solar wind using advanced imaging techniques.
    • It will consist of 4 small satellites operating in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for an expected two-year mission.
    • Unlike previous missions, PUNCH will use polarimetry (measurement of polarized light) to observe solar phenomena in 3D.
    • It allows scientists to study the origin and evolution of solar winds and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), both of which impact space weather and Earth’s technological systems.
    • Focus Areas of the PUNCH Mission:
      • Study how the Sun’s outer corona transforms into the solar wind.
      • Observe how CMEs are formed, gain speed, and travel through space.
      • Improve space weather forecasting to protect satellites, astronauts, and power grids.
      • Provide real-time data to help scientists predict solar storms and geomagnetic disturbances.
      • Contribute to NASA’s Artemis program by ensuring safe deep-space exploration.

    Key Features of the PUNCH Mission:

    • 4 microsatellite weighs 64 kg each and works together to capture a wide-field view of the Sun’s corona.
    • Advanced Imaging Instruments:
      • Narrow Field Imager (NFI):  Captures high-resolution images of the inner corona.
      • Wide Field Imagers (WFIs):  Observe solar wind and CMEs across interplanetary space.
      • STEAM (X-ray spectrometer): Monitors coronal heating and solar flares.
    • Provides real-time data every four minutes.
    • Offers a 90° field of view, covering the Sun’s outer atmosphere and heliosphere.
    • Helps mitigate the effects of solar storms on Earth’s communication systems.
    • Aids in protecting astronauts and satellites from harmful solar radiation.

    PYQ:

    [2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
    3. Power grids could be damaged.
    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
    (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
    (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • [pib] Time Use Survey (TUS), 2024

    Why in the News?

    The National Statistics Office (NSO), under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), has released the Time Use Survey (TUS) 2024, marking the second nationwide survey of its kind after 2019.

    What is the Time Use Survey (TUS) 2024?

    • The TUS, 2024 is a nationwide survey conducted by the National Statistics Office (NSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
    • It is the second edition of the survey, following the first TUS conducted in 2019.
    • Purpose: TUS measures how individuals allocate their time across paid work, unpaid domestic work, caregiving, learning, leisure, and other daily activities.
    • India is among a few countries, including Australia, Japan, Korea, the US, and China, that conduct National Time Use Surveys.
    • Unlike traditional surveys that focus solely on employment, TUS captures both economic and non-economic activities, highlighting gender roles, social structures, and lifestyle changes.

    Key Highlights of TUS 2024:

    • 75% of males and 25% of females (aged 15-59 years) participated in employment-related activities in 2024.
    • In 2019, the participation rate was 70.9% for males and 21.8% for females, reflecting a 3.2% increase in female workforce participation.
    • Decline in unpaid domestic work for women from 315 minutes/day (2019) to 305 minutes/day (2024), indicating a shift towards paid employment.
    • 41% of women and 21.4% of men in the 15-59 age group engaged in caregiving.
    • Women spent 140 minutes/day, while men spent 74 minutes/day on caregiving.
    • Male involvement in child-rearing and elder care is rising, signaling changing gender roles.
    • 89.3% of children (6-14 years) participated in learning activities, dedicating an average of 413 minutes/day.
    • Leisure time has increased – People aged 6 years and above spent 11% of their daily time on cultural, leisure, mass media, and sports activities, compared to 9.9% in 2019.
    • 16.8% of people engaged in producing goods for personal use, spending 121 minutes/day.
    • In rural areas, 24.6% of individuals (15-59 years) participated in household production.
    • Unpaid domestic services participation: 81.5% of women, 27.1% of men.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Disguised unemployment generally means:

    (a) large number of people remain unemployed
    (b) alternative employment is not available
    (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
    (d) productivity of workers is low

    [2023] Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements.

     

  • One Nation One Port Initiative

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways (MoPSW) has launched the “One Nation, One Port Process” (ONOP) initiative to standardize and streamline operations across India’s major ports.

    What is the One Nation, One Port Initiative?

    • The One Nation, One Port Process initiative, launched by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways (MoPSW), aims to standardize and streamline port operations across India.
    • It seeks to eliminate inefficiencies, reduce documentation, and enhance trade competitiveness, aligning with India’s vision of becoming a global maritime hub.

    Key Features:

    • Standardized Port Operations: Uniform documentation, customs, and clearance processes across all ports to improve efficiency.
    • Reduction in Documentation: Container operation documents reduced by 33% (from 143 to 96); bulk cargo documents cut by 29% (from 150 to 106).
    • Sagar Ankalan Logistics Port Performance Index (LPPI): Tracks port efficiency and competitiveness to align with global logistics standards.
    • MAITRI Digital Platform: Integrates AI and Blockchain for automated trade approvals, supporting Virtual Trade Corridors (VTC) with UAE, BIMSTEC, and ASEAN.
    • Green and Smart Port Infrastructure: Encourages low-carbon logistics, sustainable shipping, and modernized port facilities.
    • Maritime Development Fund & Shipbuilding Support: Provides financial incentives for domestic shipyards and strengthens India’s maritime industry.

    PYQ:

    [2009] In India, the ports are categorized as major and nonmajor ports. Which one of the following is a nonmajor port?

    (a) Kochi (Cochin)
    (b) Dahej
    (c) Paradip
    (d) New Mangalore

     

  • [27th February 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Coal power is costing India up to 10% of its rice and wheat crops

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) “In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for Development”. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2017)

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the diverse environmental impact of coal  (2017), and environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants(2014).

    India relies on coal for 65% of its electricity due to its low cost and large reserves. Coal-fired power plants release harmful gases like CO₂, SOx, NOx, and particulate matter, causing pollution and climate issues. Using Low NOx Burners with Over Fire Air technology can reduce NOx emissions by 45-80% without affecting power generation.

    Today’s editorial discusses pollution caused by coal-fired power plants in India. This information is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    New research from Stanford University in the US shows that coal-fired power plants are reducing India’s rice and wheat production, causing up to a 10% loss in several states.

    Why did the researchers focus on nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) emissions? 

    • Phytotoxic Effects on Crops: NO₂ is phytotoxic, meaning it directly harms plant health by interfering with cellular functions and enzymatic activities. Example: In agricultural areas near coal plants, NO₂ exposure leads to lower chlorophyll levels, reducing plant vitality and yield.
    • Formation of Secondary Pollutants: NO₂ contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, which further damages crops by limiting photosynthesis and causing oxidative stress. Example: Increased ozone formation near coal hubs like Chhattisgarh exacerbates crop loss during peak growing seasons.
    • Limited Existing Research in India: While global studies link NO₂ to agricultural damage, there was no systematic study at the power-plant level in India. Example: This research fills the gap by connecting NO₂ emissions from coal plants directly to wheat and rice yield losses.
    • Satellite Data Availability: Advanced satellites like TROPOMI allow precise tracking of NO₂ concentrations, making it easier to study the pollutant’s widespread effects. Example: Researchers used satellite-derived vegetation indices (NIRv) to measure crop health across polluted regions.
    • High Contribution from Coal Plants: Coal-fired power plants are a major source of NO₂ emissions, especially in industrial and agricultural belts. Example: In Chhattisgarh, around 19% of monsoon-season NO₂ comes from coal plants, causing significant crop damage.

    How does this pollutant impact plant health and crop yield?

    • Disruption of Photosynthesis: NO₂ reduces the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis by forming secondary pollutants like particulate matter. This limits energy production in plants. Example: In areas near coal plants, reduced sunlight exposure leads to a 5-10% decline in rice and wheat yields in states like West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
    • Cellular and Enzymatic Damage: NO₂ interferes with crucial cellular processes and enzymatic functions, weakening plant growth and reducing their ability to absorb nutrients. Example: Crops exposed to high NO₂ levels in Chhattisgarh show slower growth and lower productivity, especially during peak seasons.
    • Ozone Formation and Oxidative Stress: NO₂ contributes to ground-level ozone, which causes oxidative stress in plants, leading to leaf damage and reduced crop yields. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, where overall NO₂ levels are high, wheat crops suffer significant losses due to ozone-induced stress during the winter season.

    Which states show the highest agricultural losses?

    • Chhattisgarh: The most affected region with the highest share of NO₂ pollution from coal plants (19% during the monsoon and 12.5% in winter). It is a major hub for coal-fired power generation, leading to severe air pollution and crop yield losses.
    • West Bengal: There are significant NO₂ exposure from coal plants that affects 5.7% of cropland, with yield losses between 5-10% and even greater than 10% in some areas. The proximity of coal plants to fertile agricultural zones increases the impact on rice and wheat production.
    • Madhya Pradesh: About 5.9% of cropland near coal plants experiences 5-10% yield losses, while 11.9% of agricultural land could face losses exceeding 10%.
    • Uttar Pradesh: High overall NO₂ pollution, but only a small portion originates from coal-fired power plants. The other industrial sources dominate NO₂ emissions, yet coal plants still add to the burden on winter wheat yields.
    • Tamil Nadu: Low overall NO₂ levels but a large share comes from coal plants, disproportionately affecting local agriculture. The concentration of coal-fired power plants contributes a substantial portion of the region’s air pollution.

    What steps have been taken by the Indian government? 

    • Increased Budget Allocation for Coal Sector: The 2025-2026 Union Budget has increased the allocation for the Ministry of Coal by 255% over the revised estimates of FY 2024-2025, reflecting a focus on managing coal resources and addressing environmental concerns.
    • Pollution Control Mandates: The government has introduced emission norms for coal-fired power plants, requiring the installation of pollution control equipment like Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) to reduce nitrogen oxides (NO₂) and other pollutants.
    • Renewable Energy Promotion: Policies such as the National Solar Mission and incentives for renewable energy aim to reduce coal dependency and minimize air pollution while promoting cleaner energy alternatives.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Emission Regulations: Implement stricter NO₂ emission limits for coal-fired power plants, enforce regular monitoring, and expedite the adoption of advanced pollution control technologies like selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
    • Promote Sustainable Agriculture and Clean Energy: Support farmers in NO₂-affected regions with resilient crop varieties and promote a transition to renewable energy through increased investment in solar and wind infrastructure.

  • Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have discovered a reason why certain segments of the human and mouse genomes (Tra2b gene) have remained unchanged for 80 million years. These segments, known as ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), play a vital role in regulating protein production

    What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?

    • Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) are long, highly conserved DNA sequences (200+ base pairs) that have remained unchanged for millions of years across multiple species, including humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish.
    • Key Characteristics:
      • Found in both coding (gene) and non-coding (regulatory) regions of the genome.
      • Do not tolerate mutations, meaning they remain identical across species for tens of millions of years.
      • Many UCEs do not code for proteins but play crucial roles in gene regulation and cellular function.
    • Their importance:
      • Evolutionary Significance: Their extreme conservation suggests they are essential for survival, as any mutation would likely be harmful.
      • Gene Regulation: UCEs may function as enhancers or silencers, controlling when and where genes are activated.
      • Developmental Roles: They are often linked to brain development, fertility, and immune response.
      • Disease Prevention: UCEs may protect against genetic disorders and cancers by stabilizing gene expression.

    Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?

    • Humans and mice share a common mammalian ancestor that lived around 80 million years ago.
    • Genomic Similarity:
      • Around 85% of mouse genes have direct counterparts in humans.
      • Nearly 500 UCEs are identical between humans and mice, despite millions of years of evolution.
    • Many fundamental processes like cell division, metabolism, and brain function are similar between species, necessitating high conservation of crucial DNA regions.
    • Medical Research:
      • Because of these similarities, mice serve as a model organism for studying human genetics, diseases, and drug responses.
      • UCEs help scientists understand gene function across species, leading to insights into evolution and biomedical advancements.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred

    1. across different species of plants

    2. from animals to plants

    3. from microorganisms to higher organisms

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Over 70% Farmers still use Cash to sell their Produce

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) survey on agricultural transactions reveals that cash remains the primary mode of payment among farmers, although digital payments are gradually increasing. Despite the rise of Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and mobile banking, over 70% of Indian farmers still rely on cash for selling their produce.

    Key Findings of the RBI Survey

    • In 2019, 88% of farmers used cash for transactions. By 2022, this figure dropped to 79% and further declined to 72% in 2024.
      • However, this transition is slow compared to other sectors of the economy.
    • The share of farmers using electronic payments has increased from 8% in 2019 to 18% in 2024.
    • Among traders, the adoption of digital payments has been faster, rising from 8% in 2019 to 31% in 2024.
    • Among retailers, the usage of electronic payments increased from 3% in 2019 to 22% in 2024.

    Reasons behind low Digital Adoption

    • 55% of farmers rely on traders to determine market prices, up from 47% in 2019. 47% depend on fellow farmers, while fewer than 10% use apps or websites to check market rates.
      • Despite the growth of agri-tech platforms, most farmers still depend on word-of-mouth rather than digital sources for price information.
    • Multiple intermediaries in the supply chain reduce farmers’ share in the final consumer price.
    • 64% of farmers reported crop damage during the 2023-24 rabi season. Unseasonal rainfall was cited as the top reason (37%), followed by heatwaves (30%).
    • As a result, 90% of farmers consider weather forecasts as the most important factor in crop-sowing/ harvesting decisions.

    PYQ:

    [2010] With reference to India, consider the following:

    1. Nationalisation of Banks
    2. Formation of Regional Rural Banks
    3. Adoption of village by Bank Branches

    Which of the above can be considered as steps taken to achieve the “financial inclusion” in India?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2016] Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional finance fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion.

     

  • SPHEREx Telescope

    Why in the News?

    NASA is set to launch its latest space telescope, SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California.

    What is the SPHEREx Telescope?

    • SPHEREx is a new space telescope developed by NASA.
    • It is designed to map the entire sky in infrared light and provide insights into the origins of the universe, galaxy formation, and the distribution of life-forming molecules.
    • Its mission is expected to last 2 years, during which it will survey the sky 4 times.
    • Key Features of SPHEREx:
      • Infrared Spectroscopy: Unlike traditional optical telescopes, SPHEREx will capture the universe in 102 infrared colors, which are invisible to the human eye.
      • Wide-Sky Coverage: Unlike the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which focuses on narrow regions, SPHEREx will map the entire sky every 6 months.
      • High Data Output: It will collect data on one billion galaxies, 100 million stars, and 10,000 asteroids, creating an unprecedented cosmic map.
      • Study of Cosmic Inflation: SPHEREx will analyze the earliest moments after the Big Bang, helping scientists understand how the universe expanded rapidly in its infancy.
      • Search for Life-Forming Molecules: The telescope will identify biogenic molecules like water, carbon dioxide, and methanol in the Milky Way galaxy, revealing where the building blocks of life exist.

    SPHEREx Telescope

    How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?

    • Spectroscopic Imaging: SPHEREx will divide light from celestial objects into 96 infrared bands, significantly more than previous sky-mapping telescopes.
    • Mapping Galactic Evolution: By observing 450 million galaxies, SPHEREx will reveal how they evolved over cosmic history.
    • Identifying Cosmic Ice: The telescope will detect frozen water and organic molecules in interstellar dust clouds, essential for understanding planetary formation.
    • Unprecedented Infrared Insights: Unlike Hubble, which focuses on optical light, and JWST, which targets deep-space infrared observations, SPHEREx will capture broad infrared spectra across the entire sky, revealing hidden cosmic structures.

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.
    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3