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GS Paper: GS3

  • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted a global sea level rise of about one metre by AD 2100. What would be its impact in India and the other countries in the Indian Ocean region?

    Impact of 1-metre Sea-Level Rise in India

    Submergence of Low-Lying Coastal Areas – Eg- Large parts of the Kolkata, Mumbai, Kochi, Chennai

    Enhanced Coastal Erosion – Eg- as per National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) report around 34% of India’s coastline is eroded

    Salinity Intrusion into Aquifers & Rivers impacting drinking water and agriculture.

    Mangroves & Wetlands like Sundarbans, Mahanadi delta wetlands, Gulf of Kachchh mangroves risk drowning and biodiversity loss.

    Intensification of cyclones due to more moisture and heat from ocean warming.

    Millions from deltaic regions may face climate-induced migration. Around 3.6 million people have been displaced in South Asia over the past decade. (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre)

    Ports & Coastal Infrastructure face higher flooding risk, economic losses, and costly adaptation needs.

    Island Submergence – Eg- Sundarbans (Ghoramara, Sagar) and Lakshadweep (Chetlat, Amini, Kavaratti)

    Impact on Other Indian Ocean Region Countries

    Maldives – Existential Threat as 80% of land below 1 metre

    Bangladesh – Massive Displacement in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta

    Sri Lanka – damage to fisheries and tourism economy.

    Myanmar – The Irrawaddy delta—a food-producing zone—faces salinity, crop losses and intensified cyclone impact.

    Indonesia – Severe Impacts on Islands & Cities. Eg- Jakarta already sinking

    East African Coast – Countries like Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique would face mangrove loss, storm surges, and fishery declines.

    Increased Maritime Instability – Changes in ocean temperature and circulation will affect monsoons, fisheries, and regional climate systems across the Indian Ocean basin.

    Way Forward

    Hard Engineering Measures

    Seawalls to block wave attack.

    Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.

    Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.

    Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.

    Soft Engineering Measures

    Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.

    Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

    Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors.

    Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.

    Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.

    Strengthening coastal resilience and climate mitigation is essential to safeguard communities and advance SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 14 (Life Below Water).

  • Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

    Artificial intelligence (AI) is a set of technologies that empowers computers to learn, reason, and perform a variety of advanced tasks in ways that used to require human intelligence, such as understanding language, analyzing data, and even providing helpful suggestions.

    AI in clinical diagnosis

    Early diagnosis: AI detects cancers, arrhythmias, and stroke risks early, enabling timely treatment. Eg- IBM Watson for Oncology

    Pattern recognition: AI analyzes patient records to predict diabetes, hypertension, and other diseases across populations. Eg- MadhuNetrAI Program

    Robotic process automation: AI automates billing, authorizations, and record updates, reducing workload and operational costs.

    AI-guided treatment: AI personalizes treatments using genetics, lifestyle, and medical history analysis. Eg- Genetika+ using stem cell technology and AI software to match antidepressants to patients and minimise side effects.

    Enhanced accuracy: AI interprets X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, and ECGs with high precision, reducing diagnostic errors.

    Medical image analysis: AI detects tumours, fractures, and eye diseases from scans with remarkable accuracy. Eg- Google DeepMind Health

    Health monitoring: Wearables track heart rate and activity, supporting preventive healthcare through continuous monitoring. Eg- Fitbit devices.

    Threats to Individual Privacy from AI in Healthcare

    Permanent Risk of Re-identification: Expert states that no anonymized dataset is permanently secure; mathematical advancements constantly improve de-anonymization science.

    Cyber Vulnerabilities: Eg- The 2022 AIIMS attack compromised data of 30 million individuals.

    Predictive Discrimination Harms AI predicts future health risks, potentially leading to workplace or insurance bias.

    Algorithmic Bias and Marginalization AI trained on affluent data may recommend suboptimal care for marginalized groups. Eg- : Amazon’s AI recruitment tool mirrored historical gender bias.

    Secondary use of patient data: Health data collected for treatment may later train AI algorithms without meaningful patient consent.

    Corporate surveillance: AI wearables monitoring vitals and behavior may enable profiling and commercial manipulation.

    While AI offers unprecedented breakthroughs in diagnostic accuracy, its clinical deployment must be balanced with absolute data protection.

  • What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements.

    India is undergoing rapid digital transformation driven by Digital India, affordable data, and expanding digital public infrastructure.

    Status of Digitalization in the Indian Economy

    India is the third largest digitalised country (State of India’s Digital Economy Report 2024).

    The digital economy contributes 11.74% of national income. Projected to exceed agriculture and manufacturing in <6 years.

    Growing @ CAGR of 20%.

    Employs 14.67 million workers (2.55% of workforce).

    E-commerce market projected to touch USD 150 billion by 2026

    UPI handles over

    E-governance – GeM portal, DigiLocker, e-Visa, DESH-Stack portal, etc

    Sectoral contributions:

    Digital-enabling industry: 7.83% of GVA (highest).

    New digital industries: ~2% of GVA (Big Tech, platforms, intermediaries).

    Traditional sectors (BFSI, trade, education): ~2% of GVA.

    Problems in Digitalization

    Digital divide – rural-urban, gender, income gaps.

    Only 20% digitally literate (NFHS-5)

    Connectivity issues – slow BharatNet rollout, poor last-mile fibre.

    Cybersecurity risks – rising digital fraud, weak cyber hygiene. Eg- Aadhar Data breach

    Data protection concerns – gaps in implementation under DPDP Act.

    Low MSME digital adoption due to cost barriers, limited awareness.

    Digital monopolies – dominance of Big Tech in new digital industries.

    Way Forward

    Accelerate BharatNet and improve last-mile fibre and 5G coverage.

    Scale digital literacy via PMGDISHA 2.0.

    Strengthen cybersecurity through CERT-In capacity, digital hygiene campaigns, and privacy-by-design.

    Support MSME digitalization via incentives, cloud credits, and ONDC onboarding.

    Promote multilingual digital content for inclusion.

    Effective implementation of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023

    Harnessing digital economy with focus on 3 I’s – Infrastructure, Investment, Innovation can realise the vision of Knowledge Economy @2047

  • How does e-Technology help farmers in production and marketing of agricultural produce?

    e-Technology in agriculture refers to the use of digital tools, ICT platforms, mobile apps, and online services to bridge the information gap and connect farmers to modern markets.

    Role of e-Technology in Agricultural Production

    Access to real-time information – Provides timely weather forecasts, pest alerts, and irrigation advisories. Eg- Kisan Suvidha app.

    Digital nutrient management – Soil Health Card and digital soil maps guide fertilizer application – reduce input costs and improve productivity.

    Precision farming – Drones, IoT sensors, and mobile-linked devices help farmers optimise water, fertilizers, and pesticides

    Information on scientific practices like seed treatment methods, crop-specific guidance etc. Eg- Farming Leader channel on Youtube

    ICT tools, KVK portals, and helplines provide remote crop advisory, enabling timely decisions. Eg- m-Kisan app

    Facilitates crop monitoring through remote sensing technologies, drones etc. Eg- Drone Didi initiative

    Financial inclusion under JAM and DBT under PM KISAN increases capital investment and promotes diversification to high value crops

    Role of e-Technology in Agricultural Marketing

    Access to transparent price information – e-NAM, Agmarknet display mandi prices – help farmers avoid distress sales.

    Direct linkages with buyers through online bidding reduces dependence on middlemen.

    Wider market reach – Eg- e-NAM integrates 1,500+ mandis – allows inter-state trade and better price realization.

    Digital payments – UPI-linked systems ensure quick, direct payments.

    Improved post-harvest logistics – Apps provide information on transport availability, storage, cold-chain, and warehouse booking. Eg- e-NWR

    Branding – Social media and e-commerce platforms help farmers directly sell processed or organic produce to consumers. Eg- BigBasket

    When science meets scale, when innovation becomes inclusive, when technology drives transformation, the foundation for great achievements is laid – PM Modi

  • Faster economic growth requires increased share of the manufacturing sector in GDP, particularly of MSMEs. Comment on the present policies of the Government in this regard.

    MSME sector contributes “nearly one-third to India’s GDP” and is a “key pillar” of growth. However, the share of manufacturing in GDP has remained stagnant at 17% since the last 3 decades.

    Importance of increasing the manufacturing share (especially MSMEs)

    Strong employment multiplier: MMSME employes over 20Cr people

    Better capital-output ratio than large heavy industries.

    Inclusive industrialisation: Eg- 20% are MSMEs are owned by women

    Global value-chain linkages: MSMEs account for 45.7% of India’s total exports

    Structural transformation: A higher manufacturing share signals shift towards higher-productivity sectors.

    Present policies of government to boost MSME manufacturing

    Improve infrastructure and logistics – Gati Shakti Program, National Logistics Policy

    Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme to attract investment and boost domestic manufacturing.

    Ease of doing business through labour reforms. Eg- 4 labour courts

    Over 2.5 lakh MSMEs onboarded on GeM for direct government procurement.

    MSME SAMADHAAN portal for grievance redressal related to delayed payments.

    Udyam Registration system to access government benefits and schemes.

    Issues

    Missing middle problem – 95% Micro Businesses

    Slow to transition to advanced technology. (Ficci-Mckinsey Report)

    Infrastructure Deficiencies –

    Multimodal connectivity gaps.

    Power outages, weak water supply, and poor transport networks.

    Regulatory & Policy Bottlenecks

    Land acquisition delays

    Manufacturing MSMEs face 1,450+ compliances annually

    High compliance cost per MSME

    Limited Access to Finance (only 14% out of 64 million)

    Recommendations of UK Sinha Committee must be implemented to make India the global manufacturing hub

  • What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Oil pollution refers to the release of crude oil, oily waste or hydrocarbons into marine and coastal environments due to tanker spills, offshore drilling leaks, pipeline ruptures and port activities.

    Impacts of Oil Pollution on the Marine Ecosystem

    On Marine Life – Oil coats fish, seabirds, turtles and marine mammals, blocking respiration and movement.

    Damage to Coastal Habitats – Hydrocarbons hinder photosynthesis, coral polyp function and seagrass growth – Coral bleaching and mortality.

    Bioaccumulation – PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) accumulate in fish, disrupting reproduction.

    Reduction in Primary Productivity – Oil blocks sunlight and inhibits phytoplankton growth, weakening food chains.

    Disruption of Ecosystem Services – Eg- Mangroves absorb oil and suffer irreversible mortality.

    Why Oil Pollution is Particularly Harmful for India

    Extensive Coastline and High Biodiversity – India’s 7,500 km coastline hosts mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries that are highly sensitive to oil. Eg- Gulf of Mannar and Sundarbans.

    Heavy Maritime Traffic – India’s 95% trade by volume and 70-74% trade by value passes through sea routes.

    Around 170-180 million people live in coastal districts, and nearly 30% of the total population relies on coastal resources for livelihood – Fishery bans post-spills hurt incomes.

    Vulnerability of Ecologically Fragile Zones to even minor spills. Eg- Lakshadweep corals, Chilika lagoon, estuarine wetlands

    Capacity gaps in early detection, containment and coastal clean-up, especially for regional ports

    Food Security Risks – Decline in marine fish impacts protein supply for coastal populations

    Way Forward

    Bioremediation – Eg- use of Bacteria like Oilzapper

    Use of Sorbents to absorb or adsorb oil

    Natural sorbents – Straw, Volcanic ash

    Synthetic – Polyester-derived plastic shavings.

    International cooperation under Marpol convention

    India must adopt advanced monitoring, green shipping practices and ecosystem-based restoration to build resilient, spill-proof marine systems for the future.

  • State the objectives and measures of land reforms in India. Discuss how land ceiling policy on landholding can be considered as an effective reform under economic criteria

    Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice.

    Objective of land reforms in India

    Reduction in Land Inequality through redistributive justice

    Social Justice under Article 38 and 39: Providing land to the landless

    Elimination of Feudal Land Ownership – transfer land ownership to actual cultivators.

    Enhancing Agricultural Efficiency by restructuring landholding patterns.

    Encouraging Cooperative Farming for better resource utilization and economies of scale.

    Preventing Exploitation of Tenants – To ensure fair rent, security of tenure, and land rights

    To consolidate land holdings and mitigate Land Fragmentation

    Prevention of Land Alienation – Eg- Forest Rights Act, 2006.

    Poverty Alleviation and improving rural standard of living.

    Promote investment in agriculture by removing absentee landlordism.

    Measures of land reforms in India

    Abolition of Intermediaries through Zamindari Abolition Acts

    Total land transferred: 173 lakh hectares

    2 crore tenants benefitted.

    Tenancy Reforms

    It led to fixation of fair rent (usually one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce).

    Total tenants who got land rights: 12.5 million (Agricultural Census 1981).

    Eg- West Bengal’s Operation Barga (1978)

    Ceiling on Land Holdings

    Total surplus land declared: 75 lakh hectares

    Total land actually distributed: 56 lakh hectares

    Land Consolidation measures – Punjab and Haryana enforced compulsory consolidation, while other states allowed voluntary consolidation if the majority of landowners agreed.

    Bhoodan-Gramdan Movements – “non-violent revolution” in India’s land reform programme.

    16 lakh hectares of land donated under Gramdan

    More than 160,000 villages pledged Gramdan by 1970.

    Phase 5: Land Records Modernization & Land Leasing Reforms (2000s-Present)

    Digitize land records to prevent disputes and ensure transparency.

    Land records fully digitized in 92% of villages (as of 2023).

    States leading in digitization are Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh.

    Modernisation of Land Records

    Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme – 96% digitization

    SVAMITVA Scheme for geo-tagging and property cards in rural India.

    Model Land Leasing Act, 2016 (NITI Aayog)

    Land Ceiling Policy as an Effective Reform under Economic Criteria

    Land redistributed to actual tillers– higher incentives to cultivate efficiently. Smallholder farmers in India achieve higher cropping intensity than large farms.

    Multiplier effect – Distribution of land to the poor increases purchasing power, strengthening the rural economy .

    Encourages Investment & Sustainable Use – Secure ownership motivates farmers to invest in irrigation, soil health, and technology.

    Employment – Smaller farms use labour-intensive methods, creating rural employment.

    Ceilings prevent re-concentration of land, supporting long-term agrarian stability.

    Increases women land ownership – women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

  • Dam failures are always catastrophic, especially on the downstream side, resulting in a colossal loss of life and property. Analyze the various causes of dam failures. Give two examples of large dam failures.

    Causes of Dam Failures

    Natural Factors

    Extreme Rainfall – Flooding causes 44% of dam failures in India (CWC). Eg- Tiware Dam breach in 2019

    Chungthang Dam in Sikkim was washed away in 2023 due to glacial lake outburst of South Lhonak Lake.

    Earthquakes cause cracks, foundation instability, or slope failure. Eg- liquefaction in the foundation of Chang Dam after Bhuj EQ (2001)

    Geological Weaknesses – Fault zones, weak rock strata, or unconsolidated foundations beneath dams.

    Climate Change – Increased frequency of high-intensity rainfall events beyond historical norms.

    Human Factors

    Faulty Design and Planning – Eg- Underestimation of Probable Maximum Flood (PMF).

    Aging – 1,065 large dams 50-100 years old, 224 are over a century old. Eg- safety concerns over ​​Mullaperiyar Dam (130 year old)

    Weak Regulatory Oversight – Eg- poor dam safety audits (CAG report).

    Poor maintenance and sedimentation – Eg- Around 3700 dams in India will lose 26% of the total storage by 2050 due to sedimentation (UN).

    Examples of dam failures

    Machhu dam disaster, 1979, in Morbi, Gujarat – 2,000 people died and 12,000 houses were destroyed.

    Banqiao Dam Failure, China (1975)

    Extreme rainfall from Typhoon Nina

    Cascade failure of multiple dams due to poor design

    Estimated 1,70,000 deaths (direct and indirect)

    Initiatives Taken for Dam Safety in India

    Dam Safety Act, 2021 – Statutory framework for surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of dams.

    National Register of Large Dams (NRLD) complied and maintained by CWC.

    Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) for rehabilitation of 736 dams across 19 States.

    Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring Application (DHARMA)- application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in dam safety.

    Rigorous dam safety audits, climate-resilient design and real-time monitoring is essential to protect the ‘temples of modern India’

  • What are the internal security challenges being faced by India? Give out the role of Central Intelligence and Investigative Agencies tasked to counter such threats.

    India’s internal security landscape has become increasingly complex, characterized by the convergence of traditional threats and high-tech “Grey Zone” challenges.

    Traditional Internal Security Challenges

    Cross-Border Terrorism- Eg- The 2025 Pahalgam attack by the TRF (a proxy of LeT).

    Left-Wing Extremism (LWE)- The “Red Corridor” remains a threat in core districts of Chhattisgarh and Odisha.

    Insurgency in the North-East- Ethnic militancy and secessionist movements like NSCN (IM).

    Communal and Sectarian Violence- Eg- Delhi Riots, 2020

    Illegal Migration & Infiltration along Bangladesh and Myanmar borders. Eg- Rohingya

    Organized Crime Syndicates-

    Extortion and smuggling networks. Eg- D-Company

    Drug Trafficking from Golden Crescent and Golden Traingle

    Hawala & Fake Currency (FICN)- Illegal financial channels used to destabilize the economy.

    Coastal Security Vulnerabilities

    Piracy

    Illegal deep sea fishing

    Emerging Internal Security Challenges

    Drone-Enabled Smuggling- Use of UAVs for drug and weapon drops.

    Cyber-Warfare-

    Rise in “Digital arrest” cases

    13.7% of global incidents target India (Cyfirma report)

    Deepfakes & AI-Disinformation- Eg- Manipulated videos during the 2025 state elections.

    Online Radicalization and “white-collar” terrorism. Eg- 2025 “Doctor Module” of Red Fort Blast.

    Cryptocurrency for Terror Funding- Use of “Privacy Coins” to bypass banking regulators.

    Role of agencies

    Intelligence Agencies

    Intelligence Bureau (IB)-

    India’s premier internal intelligence agency

    Manages the Multi-Agency Centre (MAC) to coordinate real-time terror alerts

    Research & Analysis Wing (R&AW)- External intelligence agency. Monitors cross-border launch pads, foreign political developments, and global terror financing.

    National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO)-

    The apex body for technical intelligence

    Manages spy satellites, UAVs, and “Cyber-Surveillance”.

    Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA)- Integrates intelligence from the Army, Navy, and Air Force

    Financial Intelligence Unit-India (FIU-IND)- receive and analyze reports on suspicious financial transactions to track money laundering and terror funding.

    Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)- India’s premier anti-smuggling agency. Monitors trafficking of gold, firearms, and counterfeit currency (FICN). Eg- Operation Molten Metal to bust gold smuggling racket

    Investigative Agencies

    National Investigation Agency (NIA)-

    The federal counter-terrorism agency

    Has Suo Motu powers to investigate terror cases without state consent.

    Eg- “Operation Octopus” Against PFI

    Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)-

    Probes high-profile corruption, economic offenses, and serious inter-state crimes

    Acts as the nodal agency for Interpol in India.

    Enforcement Directorate (ED)- enforce the PMLA

    Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)- Apex coordinating body for the drug trade

    Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO)- investigate complex white-collar crimes and large-scale corporate frauds.

    Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB)- curbing organized wildlife crime and illegal trade in endangered species.

    Advanced intelligence, investigative precision, and grassroots socio-economic development need to work in tandem to safeguard the nation’s democratic fabric.

  • Give out the major sources of terror funding in India and the efforts being made to curtail these sources. In the light of this, also discuss the aim and objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference recently held at New Delhi in November 2022.

    Funding is the lifeblood of terrorism. The “No Money for Terror” conference was started in 2018 by the French government, to enhance cooperation between countries to choke terror funding.

    As per FATF Report‘Comprehensive Update on Terrorist Financing Risks’, the major sources of terror funding include

    Traditional Methods

    Hawala Networks – Informal money transfers bypassing banks.

    State-Sponsored Funding – Eg- Pakistan’s ISI financing LeT and JeM operations in India.

    Narco-Terrorism – Eg- Heroin smuggling via Punjab linked to terror networks.

    Counterfeit Indian Currency (FICN) – Fake currency to fund operations and destabilise economy.

    Extortion and Illegal Levies – Eg- Maoist levies on mining contractors in Chhattisgarh.

    Charities and NGO Fronts – Eg- PFI-linked organisations routing funds for radicalisation.

    Organised Crime Nexus – Eg- Arms and timber smuggling in Northeast India.

    Emerging Methods

    Social media – used to promote donation campaigns and share payment instructions, including wallet addresses.

    Cryptocurrencies and Virtual Assets – Eg- Bitcoin wallets.

    Encrypted Payment Apps and E-Wallets – Eg- PayPal

    Dark Web Transactions – Anonymous marketplaces for funds, weapons and logistics.

    Gaming Platforms – Eg- EoRMT organisations, Hezbollah, creating and selling their own video games

    Microfinancing models utilized by lone actors – through small, legitimate sources of income.

    Efforts made to curtail these sources

    India has declared zero tolerance towards terror financing and money laundering

    Legal measures – Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act and Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) are used to designate individuals and seize funds linked to terrorism.

    Institutional measures – National Investigation Agency (NIA) investigate terror funding, while the Enforcement Directorate (ED) pursues money-laundering cases.

    The Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND) tracks and analyses suspicious financial transactions and shares data with law-enforcement.

    Specialised units such as the Terror Funding and Fake Currency (TFFC) Cell focus on disrupting terror finance links.

    India collaborates with bodies like Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and Egmont Group to share intelligence and align standards against terror financing.

    Monitoring of NGOs for FCRA compliance. Eg- Ban on NGOs linked to Zakir Naik

    Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act (PROGA) 2025 – bans all real-money online gaming (RMG), including games of skill

    National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID), has been created as an IT platform to assist the intelligence and law enforcement agencies.

    Aim and Objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference

    Global Cooperation on Terror Financing

    Focus on Trends in Terror Funding – Deliberations focused on formal and informal channels, and the evolving methods of terror finance.

    Regulating and countering use of Emerging Technologies like cryptocurrencies and digital platforms for terror financing

    Mobilise resources to enable LDCs and developing countries to counter terror financing

    Enhance information sharing, harmonise legal measures, and bolster mutual assistance between countries to intercept and prosecute terror financing.

    India stressed a uniform and zero-tolerance approach to terrorism and its financing, rejecting distinctions between “good” and “bad” terrorism.

    NMFT 2022 built on earlier conferences (Paris 2018, Melbourne 2019) to maintain continuity and momentum in international action against terror finance.

    “Money is the oxygen of terrorism. Cut the oxygen, and you suffocate the threat.” – Antonio Guterres, UN Secretary-General