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GS Paper: GS3

  • Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

    The Central Government consolidated 29 existing central labour laws into four codes to simplify the legal framework, improve ease of doing business.

    4 Labour codes-

    Code on Wages

    Industrial Relations Code

    Code on Social Security

    Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code

    Merits

    Merging and Simplification of laws reduces complexity and overlaps.

    Uniform definitions & wage protections: Eg- code on Wages introduces a floor wage

    Flexibility in hiring/retention: IR Code raises the threshold for requiring government approval for layoffs/closures from 100 to 300 workers.

    Broader social security coverage: SS Code covers gig workers, platform workers, unorganised sector. (presently only 25%)

    Improved safety and working conditions: OSHWC mandates working hours, safety standards, migrant worker welfare.

    Promoting formalisation through clearer rules and digital compliance systems.

    Minimise exploitative practices – Eg: provision for overtime wages twice normal wages

    Easier resolution of industrial disputes – Eg: 14 days’ notice period before strikes & lockdowns

    Demerits

    Transition and Adaptation Challenges as India’s labour market is 90% informal, contributing nearly 50% of GDP

    Weakened collective bargaining: IR Code imposes stricter conditions on strikes (60 days’ notice).

    Job-security concerns: Increased flexibility may lead to precarious employment. Eg- fixed-term employment, easier layoffs

    Increased burden on SMEs: Eg- requirements such as documentation of wages, benefits, safety norms, etc..

    Inconsistent Application Across Sectors – agriculture (60% of informal workforce) and construction (~50 million workers) face seasonal work, casual labour, and absence of contracts

    Rising Costs for Businesses

    Gratuity obligations

    PF contributions

    Maternity benefits (26 weeks paid leave + crĂšche facilities)

    Progress So Far

    All four codes are legally enacted between 2019-20.

    34 States and UTs have notified draft rules but full implementation is pending.

    The Centre has initiated digital portals (e-Shram, unified labour compliance) to support implementation.

    Resistance from trade unions and worker groups continues. Eg- strikes by AITUC and CPI

    Labour is a concurrent subject – state-level variation persists.

    Enforcing labour codes can bring in transparency, simplification & digitization in compliance. This can help India to become a manufacturing hub as companies adopt the “China+1” strategy.

  • Describe the context and salient features of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023

    The DPDP Act, 2023 aims to transform India from a “privacy-neutral” state to a “privacy-centric” digital democracy. It provides the legal backbone for India’s $1 trillion digital economy aspirations.

    Context of the Act

    Committee Recommendations (Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee) emphasizing “Data Sovereignty” and the “Fiduciary” relationship.

    Digital economy- With over 900 million internet users, the rapid expansion of digital payments (UPI) and digital public infrastructure (Aadhar, CoWIN) required robust safeguards.

    Inadequacy of IT Act, 2000- The previous framework (Section 43A) was narrow, outdated, and lacked the “teeth” to penalize global tech giants for data breaches.

    To remain a global outsourcing hub, India needed a law compatible with Global Norms. Eg- EU’s GDPR.

    Data Breaches highlighted the vulnerability of citizens’ personal data. Eg- CoWIN data leak

    The rise of AI-driven behavioral profiling and “dark patterns” in e-commerce necessitated “Purpose Limitation.”

    Data has become the “new oil” in modern warfare, with data localization as a vital component of national security.

    Salient Features of the Act

    The Act is built on the philosophy of “Rightful Processing”

    Tripartite Stakeholder Model- Identifies the Data Principal (individual), Data Fiduciary (entity deciding data use), and Data Processor (entity handling data).

    Consent-First Approach- Processing is only lawful with “free, specific, informed, unconditional, and unambiguous” consent via a clear notice.

    Rights of Data Principals- Grants the right to Access (summary of data), Correction, Erasure, and Nomination (bequeathing digital data after death).

    Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs)- Entities handling high-volume or sensitive data (e.g., Social Media) must appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO) and conduct annual audits.

    Protection of Minors- Mandates verifiable parental consent for children (under 18) and strictly prohibits tracking or targeted advertising directed at them.

    Data Protection Board of India (DPBI)- A digital-first regulatory body empowered to investigate breaches and impose fines.

    Negative List for Cross-Border Flow- Permits data transfer to most countries unless specifically restricted by a government “Blocklist.”

    Stringent Financial Penalties- Forgoes criminal jail terms in favor of massive civil penalties-up to for failure to prevent a data breach.

    Challenges That Remain

    Surveillance concerns- Section 17 allows the state to bypass most provisions for “security of the state” and “public order”.

    Diligence vs. Innovation- high cost of implementing “Privacy by Design” and maintaining audit trails for MSMEs and startups.

    One-size-fits-all approach- Unlike GDPR, the Indian law does not distinguish between general data and “Sensitive” data.

    The Act is a right step toward Digital Sovereignty. It must move beyond mere legal text to create a “Privacy Culture” for meaningful exercise of digital autonomy.

  • What is the need for expanding the regional air connectivity in India? In this context, discuss the government’s UDAN Scheme and its achievements.

    UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Naagrik) scheme was launched in 2017 to enhance regional air connectivity and make air travel accessible to all.

    Need for Expanding Regional Air Connectivity in India

    Bridging Regional Imbalances and connecting Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities. Boosts economic activity and market integration.

    Enhancing Mobility for Remote Areas such as the Northeast, Himalayan states, and island regions

    Boosting Tourism and Local Economies in places like Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Northeast India, and coastal regions.

    Reducing Travel Time & improving convenience for business, medical, and administrative travel.

    Air connectivity enhances ease of doing business by stimulating Trade and Investment

    National Integration & Security- strengthen connectivity in strategic border regions

    Employment generation at airlines, airports, air navigation sector

    Environment benefit with “green airports” minimising carbon footprint. Eg- Kochi Airport

    UDAN Scheme (Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik): Key Features

    Objective- Make air travel affordable and accessible, especially in underserved and unserved airports.

    Regional Connectivity Scheme provides viability gap funding (VGF) to airlines to operate flights on low-demand routes.

    Revives/operationalises existing airstrips, heliports to reduce infrastructure barriers.

    affordable.

    Focus on Remote Areas in the Northeast, hill states, islands, tribal districts to ensure last-mile connectivity.

    Encourages Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in regional airport infrastructure.

    Achievements of the UDAN Scheme

    India emerged as 3rd largest aviation market in the world

    Expansion of Airports- Over 70+ airports, heliports, and water aerodromes have been operationalised

    More than 1,000 UDAN routes have been awarded, connecting Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities to major metros.

    Improved Connectivity in the Northeast & Himalayas – Routes like Shillong-Agartala, Pasighat-Guwahati, Kullu-Shimla

    Enhanced Tourism & Local Economies in destinations such as Shirdi, Darbhanga, Jharsuguda, Kishangarh, and Hubballi

    Growth of Regional Airlines due to VGF-supported routes. Eg- Star Air, TruJet

    Operationalisation of Water Aerodromes in places like Sabarmati-Kevadia, creating new mobility options.

    Faster air access in remote regions supports emergency evacuation and medical services. Eg- during Kerala Floods

    Issues in Expanding Regional Air Connectivity / UDAN Implementation

    Low Route Viability- Many Tier-2 and Tier-3 routes have low passenger demand

    Smaller regional airlines (e.g., TruJet) have struggled due to high operational costs, fuel prices, and limited fleet capacity.

    Several UDAN airports lack proper runways, night-landing facilities, ATC systems, firefighting equipment

    Slow land acquisition, tendering, and regulatory clearances delay operationalisation

    Volatility in Fuel Prices- ATF constitutes 35-40% of airline cost

    Limited Last-Mile Connectivity as .any UDAN airports are far from city centres

    Way Forward

    Adopt flexible revenue-share + viability funding to ensure long-term route sustainability.

    Fast-track DGCA clearances, land acquisition, environmental approvals

    Leverage Technology – Integrate AI, ML, automation, digital ATC towers, and predictive maintenance

    Boost Multimodal Integration- Ensure UDAN airports are linked to rail, buses, waterways

    With improved PPP models and technology adoptionUDAN can act as a true catalyst for inclusive growth and balanced regional development.

  • Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco-terrorism.

    Narco-terrorism refers to the use of drug trafficking and narcotics trade to finance terrorist and insurgent activities. In India, it has emerged as a serious challenge due to porous borders, regional instability and rising drug demand.

    Narco-Terrorism as a Serious Threat in India

    India lies between the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle, making it vulnerable as a transit and destination country.

    Nexus between Terror Groups and Organised Crime to move drugs and launder money.

    Destabilisation of Border States– Eg- Rising drug addiction and arms recovery in Punjab.

    Use of Advanced Technology– Eg- Drone-based drug and arms drops across the Punjab border.

    Threat to Youth and Social Fabric – Eg- as per AIIMS report, 15.4% of Punjab’s population was engaged in some form of substance use (over 3 million people)

    .

    Maritime security concerns –

    Measures to Counter Narco-Terrorism

    Strengthening Border Management – Enhance surveillance, fencing, anti-drone systems and coastal security.

    Integrated Intelligence – Seamless coordination among NIA, NCIB, ED, DRI, state police and intelligence agencies.

    Targeting Financial Networks – Crackdown on money laundering, hawala and benami assets linked to drug trade.

    International Cooperation – Cooperation under FATF framework and bilateral mechanisms.

    Legal and Institutional Strengthening – Swift prosecution under Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985

    Technological Solutions – Use of AI, data analytics and drone monitoring to track trafficking routes.

    Fast track implementation of National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction (NAPDDR) and Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan (NMBA)

    Community Policing – Involve border communities in intelligence gathering.

    A multi-pronged strategy under zero tolerance for narcotics is essential to dismantle the narco-terror ecosystem and ‘Nasha Mukt Bharat’.

  • What role do environmental NGOs and activists play in influencing Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) outcomes for major projects in India? Cite four examples with all important details.

    In the Subhash Kumar case, SC has declared the right to enjoyment of pollution-free water and air as a fundamental right under Article 21. The role of NGOs and activists in EIA is critical for realising this right.

    Role of Environmental NGOs and Activists in Influencing EIA Outcomes in India

    Public Awareness & Mobilisation – Eg- Mobilising affected communities against environmentally destructive projects.

    Scientific Scrutiny of EIAs through Independent environmental audits and counter-environment reports. Eg- Greenpeace India exposed false forest and coastal data in the POSCO Odisha steel project

    Legal Intervention through PILs, NGT. Eg- Eg- Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum led to judicial incorporation of Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays Principle

    Strengthening Public Consultation – Ensure genuine Gram Sabha consent.

    Policy-Level Influence – Shape national environmental jurisprudence and regulatory reforms.

    Negative Role

    Anti-development agenda – costed 2% of GDP (IB report)

    FCRA violations – Eg- Suspension of World Vision India’s FCRA license

    Project Delays and Cost Escalation – Eg- sardar sarovar dam

    Selective Environmental Campaigning – Eg- limited activism on urban infrastructure impacts.

    Four Major Examples with Important Details

    Save Western Ghats Movement (Across six states) – Influenced Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) recommendations restricting industries in eco-sensitive zones.

    Vedanta-Niyamgiri Bauxite Mining Case (Odisha) – SC (2013) ordered Gram Sabha consultations

    Sterlite Copper Plant – Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu – Tamil Nadu Government closed the plant (2018); NGT upheld closure citing environmental non-compliance.

    POSCO Steel Project, Odisha – Forest clearance withdrawn, project cancelled in 2017

    NGOs and activists remain India’s ecological watchdogs, ensuring that EIAs evolve from clearance tools into genuine instruments of environmental justice and sustainability.

  • What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    IPR grants legal rights over innovations, while life materials include genes, microorganisms, and GMOs. Their intersection determines ownership and commercialization of biological resources, shaping biotechnology, healthcare, agriculture, and innovation-driven economic growth.

    Present World Scenario of IPRs with Respect to Life Materials

    Biotechnology: Increased patents on GMOs and gene-editing technologies, though patent laws differ across countries. Eg- CRISPR-Cas9 patents in the US and restrictions in the EU.

    Ethical concerns: Patenting genes and life forms can create monopolies and limit public access to healthcare and seeds. Eg- Myriad Genetics BRCA1 gene patent case.

    Developing nations’ approach: often oppose patents on essential medicines and biological resources. Eg- India rejected Novartis Glivec patent under Section 3(d).

    TRIPS and global standards:

    The TRIPS Agreement requires patent protection but allows safeguards for public health and biodiversity.

    With the WTO moratorium ending after MC 14 Meet, countries can now challenge public-health measures like compulsory licensing for harming expected profits.

    Open-source movements: Open-access biological initiatives encourage collaborative innovation and protect farmers’ rights. Eg- Open Source Seed Initiative.

    Biopiracy: Unauthorized patenting of biological resources and traditional knowledge exploits indigenous communities without fair compensation.

    Reasons for Low Commercialization in India

    Weak industry-academia linkage: Limited collaboration between research institutions and industries restricts market adoption. Eg- About 13.8% of CSIR patents are licensed.

    “Valley of Death” funding gap: Indian universities lack sufficient funding to scale laboratory research and prototypes into commercially viable products through testing and trials.

    Weak Patent Quality: Many patents suffer from vague claims, weak disclosures, or insufficient novelty, making them vulnerable to litigation and revocation.

    Slow regulatory machinery: Patent approvals and clearances in India often take 5-7 years, delaying commercialization and reducing technological relevance.

    Complex tech-transfer policies: Fragmented institutional IP policies create legal uncertainty, discouraging industry partnerships.

    Lack of Skilled IP Management: Limited expertise in licensing, prior-art research, and market-oriented commercialization, causing many patents to remain commercially unused.

    Misaligned objectives: Universities and researchers prioritize patent filings for rankings and grants, while industries seek scalable, market-ready technologies.

    Low absorptive capacity: Most universities lack strong innovation ecosystems and technology-transfer infrastructure beyond elite institutions like IITs.

    Poor commercialization infrastructure: India lacks strong incubators and technology-transfer systems.

    Global competition: Indian innovations face competition from dominant multinational corporations. Eg- Pfizer global market dominance.

    Inadequate Innovation Ecosystem: Support systems such as advanced laboratories, industry mentors, commercialization hubs, and global market integration remain uneven across regions.

    Way Forward

    Shift from quantity-driven patenting to quality-driven innovation by rewarding commercially viable and genuinely novel research.

    Strengthen industry-academia collaboration through technology transfer offices, IP centres, and startup incubation ecosystems. E.g Bayh-Dole model of the United States.

    Emulate China’s metrics-based databases, using big data analytics to isolate high-value patents

    Develop specialized biotechnology and pharmaceutical IP commercialization hubs on the lines of innovation clusters in South Korea and Israel.

    Utilize the 2024 Patent Rules, advance renewal discounts, and expanded startup facilitator schemes to protect emerging technologies.

    Align academic incentives away from mere patent counts toward innovation impact, technology transfer, and market adoption.

    Enhance venture capital support, FDI confidence, and startup financing by ensuring strong and enforceable intellectual property rights.

    Promote uniform state-level IP policies, single-window commercialization portals, and support for SMEs and rural innovators.

    With the above measures India can convert its patents into drivers of innovation, technological self-reliance, and the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.

    Nuclear energy

  • Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India.

    Millets (Shree Anna) are emerging as a critical pillar of India’s strategy to achieve nutrition security, dietary diversification and climate-resilient food systems

    Role of millets

    Food Security

    Drought and heat resistant

    Requires less water and fertiliser – Ideal for tribal, arid and semi-arid regions

    Rich Nutritional Profile

    High in iron, calcium, zinc, magnesium and phosphorus

    Higher protein and dietary fibre than rice and wheat

    Low glycaemic index, suitable for diabetics and obese populations

    Tackling Malnutrition & Hidden Hunger

    Addresses micronutrient deficiency among women and children (anaemia, stunting and wasting)

    Can strengthen ICDS, Mid-Day Meal and POSHAN Abhiyaan

    Versatile: Can be used in traditional and modern dishes. Eg- in biscuits, noodles, bakery

    Promotes Dietary Diversity – Reduces over-dependence on rice-wheat centric diets

    Supports Public Health

    Prevents non-communicable diseases like diabetes, hypertension and heart disease

    Strengthens immunity due to high antioxidant content

    Aligned with international commitments

    SDG-2 – Zero Hunger

    International year of millets (2023)

    Challenges

    Perceived as “poor person’s food”

    Lack of Awareness of health benefits.

    High Cost than rice/wheat – less accessible to low-income groups.

    Decline in Cultivation Area:Reduced from 35 to 15 million hectares

    PDS Challenge:Replacing 20% rice/wheat requires 10.8 million tonnes of millets.

    Way Forward

    Demand-Side Strategies

    Consumer Awareness Campaigns: Eg- Eat Right India

    Gluten-Free Exports: Eg- millet products like pasta and flour.

    Supply-Side Strategies

    Revive Traditional Practices: Eg-Barahnaja in Uttarakhand.

    Strengthen Market Linkages through FPOs and cooperatives

    Special Agribusiness Zones (SABZ)

    Enhancing millet production and consumption is key for Swasth Bharat, Samruddh Bharat

  • What is the technology being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations? What are the proposed changes that will make this process seamless? Would this transition carry any potential hazards?

    The total length of National Highways in India is around 1.5 Lakh km. India currently uses FASTag, based on RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology.

    Passive RFID tagRFID readers

    Advantages of FASTag-Based Electronic Tolling

    Reduced Congestion – Minimises stoppages, reduces queueing, and cuts travel time

    Continuous movement lowers Fuel Consumption & Emissions

    Improved Revenue Realisation- Eliminates leakages, cash handling issues, and human errors.

    Better Traffic Management due to real-time vehicle data – enhances logistics efficiency.

    Digital Financial Inclusion –Promotes cashless payments and creates digital transaction footprint

    Limitations of the Current FASTag System

    RFID Reading Errors- Faulty tags or improper placement cause delays.

    Congestion during peak hours.

    Bank downtime results in payment failures and traffic jams.

    Fraud & Misuse- Cloning of RFID tags, misuse of blacklisted/invalid tags.

    Inadequate adaption – Eg- non availability in rural areas

    Proposed Changes to Make Tolling Seamless

    Expansion of ETC lanes – 100% coverage by 2025

    ANPR (Automatic Number Plate Recognition)-Based Tolling

    GPS-based – Vehicles fitted with GPS devices and toll are charged based on the distance travelled on a highway.

    Free-Flow Tolling (FFT) Corridors – open road tolling for uninterrupted movement.

    Integration with NHAI’s ‘One Vehicle One FASTag’ Drive

    Potential Hazards in Transition to New Tolling Systems

    Privacy & Surveillance Concerns – Eg- Continuous GPS tracking and ANPR imaging

    Cybersecurity Risks- vulnerability to hacking, spoofing, or data breaches.

    ANPR systems may misread plates due to dirt, or damaged plates.

    Digital Divide – Eg- 33% rural population is digitally literate (NFHS-5)

    Technical Failures- Weather, fog, rain etc can affect ANPR accuracy and system reliability.

    Replacing toll plazas with nationwide FFT infrastructure requires massive investment.

    Addressing these concerns can ensure efficient, seamless, congestion-free highways.

  • Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

    River water pollution as significant environmental issue

    Pollution – Eg- 60% of untreated sewage water is released into rivers daily. (CPCB)

    Impact on health – diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and skin infections.

    Faecal coliform in Ganga exceeds safe limits by up to 150 times

    Marine Ecology – Eg- Eutrophication, algal blooms, and dead zones

    Marine Biodiversity – Eg- Bioaccumulation in Fish

    Water crisis – Eg- 600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    Mitigation Measures

    On-site Effluent Treatment plants for textile and tannery clusters to treat wastewater before discharge

    Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) technologies. Eg- Mandatory in Tamil Nadu textile units.

    Install real-time effluent monitoring sensors in industries for instant alerts to CPCB/SPCBs.

    Cleaner Production Technologies – Eg- Green dyeing technologies in Surat textile units.

    Polluter-Pays principles – Eg- NGT orders on Yamuna and Musi industries.

    Industrial Zoning to restrict polluting industries near rivers. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Create riparian vegetative buffers to filter runoff. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Strengthen Monitoring & Surveillance – Use drones, GIS, river basin audits and citizen reporting tools.

    Government Initiatives

    Namami Gange Mission – Focus on industrial discharge reduction, and ZLD compliance. Eg- Closure of non-compliant Kanpur tanneries.

    The National Water Quality Monitoring Programme of CPCB identifies critically polluted stretches

    Environment (Protection) Act – Sets strict industry-specific limits for BOD, COD, heavy metals and toxins.

    Water Pollution Act, 1974 – Establishes the CPCB for planning and regulating environmental matters

    Yamuna Action Plan to clean the stretch of river Yamuna.

    AMRUT & SBM (Urban) Convergence – Expands sewage treatment.

    A technology driven and community driven approach is needed to ensure resilient, pollution-free rivers.

  • Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

    Since the 1991 reforms, India shifted to a market-oriented growth model. Public expenditure on social services increased from 5% of GDP (1990s) to 8% (2024-25)

    Trend of Public Expenditure on Social Services in the Post-Reforms Period

    Early Post-Reform Phase (1991-2005)

    Low and stagnant spending around 5% of GDP due to fiscal consolidation.

    Prioritisation of basic education – expansion of SSA, mid-day meal.

    Health expenditure remained low at 1% of GDP, high OOPE.

    Rights-Based Expansion Phase (2005-2015)

    Public expenditure rose to 6-7% of GDP.

    Introduction of major rights-based entitlements: MGNREGA (2005), RTI, RTE (2009), NFSA (2013).

    Focus on rural livelihood missions, inclusion programmes. Eg- DAY-NRLM

    Post-2015 Period

    Social sector spending increased to 8% of GDP (2021-22).

    Health spending reforms – decline in OOPE from 65% to 40% (2014-2024).

    Women Specific schemes: Eg- Ujjwala (10 crore LPG connections)

    Emphasis on social security. Eg- e-Shram, PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.

    Increased focus on skill development, digital inclusion. Eg- JAM Trinity, PM-KVY

    In consonance with Inclusive Growth

    Extreme poverty fell from 16.2 % in 2011-12 to just 2.3 % in 2022-23

    MGNREGA, NFSA ensured income security and food security (67% population coverage).

    Human Capital Improvement – Life expectancy increased from 58 years (1990) to 73 years.

    Regional Inclusion – Aspirational Districts improved health, education, and infrastructure indicators in 112 lagging districts.

    Women Empowerment – Eg- 45% women representation in PRIs

    Limitations and Challenges

    Rural-Urban Divide Persists – Urban per capita income is 2x rural.

    Only 24-25% of the population has any formal social protection.

    Poor Learning Outcomes

    50% of Class 5 students cannot read Class 2 text (ASER).

    50% of graduates are employable only (India Skills Report).

    Low Public Health Spending – Still around 1.9% of GDP, below the global average of 6%.

    Inclusion-Exclusion errors and Leakages in PDS.

    High Inequality – Top 10% hold 77% of national wealth (Oxfam).

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) by increasing Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’