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GS Paper: GS3

  • Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.

    The “Hearts and Minds” approach in counter-terrorism is a strategic doctrine that emphasizes building trust, and popular support within local populations to defeat terrorist movements.

    Importance of Hearts and Minds

    Prevention of Radicalization by deligitimising terrorism

    Community Intelligence Gathering

    Reducing Support for Terrorist Activities

    Enhanced Legitimacy of the State – state as ‘development partner’ rather than ‘occupying force’

    Long-Term Stability and Peace as ‘residual anger’ is addressed

    Measures adopted by the Government

    National integration through abrogation of Article 370

    Operation Sadbhavana – Army-led goodwill initiatives focusing on education, healthcare and youth engagement.

    Civic Action Programme (CAP) – Police and CAPFs hold public meetings, sports events and grievance redress camps. Eg- Jan Sampark melas

    Skill development, entrepreneurship push – Eg- Mission Youth and Himayat

    Social infrastructure development – Eg- IIT and AIIMS in jammu

    Connectivity initiatives for tourism promotion. Eg- Chenab Bridge, and running Vande Bharat trains

    De-radicalisation Centres – Counselling sessions for first-time offenders.

    Surrender and Rehabilitation policy for former militants through financial assistance, education and job support.

    Targeted Security Approach – Eg- Focus on OGWs and hybrid militants without mass crackdowns.

    Community Policing – Eg- Village Defence Groups in Rajouri-Poonch.

    For long-term peace and stability in the region 4-pronged stategy is needed

    Strengthening HUMINT (Human Intelligence) and TECHINT (Technological Intelligence).

    SMART Boders (Madhukar Gupta Committee)

    Raising cost of terrorism for Pakistan. Eg- Operation Sindoor

    Human-centric Counterinsurgency

  • Discuss several ways in which microorganisms can help in meeting the current fuel shortage.

    Microorganisms are microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, archaea, and microalgae that can break down organic matter and produce useful energy compounds. Due to these capabilities, they are becoming important for sustainable energy production and the global clean energy transition.

    Ways Microorganisms Help in Meeting Fuel Shortage

    Bioethanol: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis ferment sugars and agricultural waste into ethanol. India achieved 10% ethanol blending in 2022 and targets 20% (E20) by 2025-26.

    Biodiesel: Microalgae such as Chlorella and Dunaliella produce lipid-rich biomass, which is converted into biodiesel through transesterification.

    Biogas through Anaerobic Digestion: Methanogens decompose sewage, food waste, and cow dung to produce methane-rich biogas. Eg- India’s GOBAR-dhan scheme.

    Biohydrogen Production: Certain photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria can split water or organic compounds to release Hydrogen gas, the cleanest burning fuel.

    Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs): Bacteria break down organic waste in wastewater and release electrons, generating electricity while simultaneously treating the wastewater.

    Biobutanol Production: Species like Clostridium acetobutylicum produce butanol through ABE (Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol) fermentation. Biobutanol is considered superior to ethanol.

    Syngas Fermentation: Acetogenic bacteria can convert synthesis gas (CO and H2 from industrial emissions or biomass gasification) into liquid fuels like ethanol and acetic acid.

    Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR): Microbes are injected into depleted oil wells where they produce surfactants and gases that decrease oil viscosity.

    For a country like India, which imports over 80% of its crude oil, scaling up microbial fuel technologies is essential for achieving Urja Atmanirbharta (Energy Self-reliance) and meeting the Panchamrit targets for net-zero emissions.

  • India has a long and troubled border with China and Pakistan fraught with contentious issues. Examine the conflicting issues and security challenges along the border. Also give out the development being undertaken in these areas under the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) and Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme.

    India’s borders with China (3,488 km) and Pakistan (3,323 km) are among the most militarized and volatile in world. It is marred by territorial disputes and a transition toward high-tech “hybrid warfare”

    Conflicting Issues and Security Challenges

    India-China Border (Line of Actual Control – LAC)

    Strategic Encirclement- CPEC passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) is seen by India as a violation of sovereignty.

    High-Altitude Standoffs- heavy troop deployments post 2020 Galwan clash. Despite a disengagement agreement in October 2024, mutual distrust remains high.

    China’s rapid construction of “Xiaokang” (dual-use model villages) and airfields near the LAC puts tactical pressure on Indian defenses.

    India-Pakistan Border (International Border & Line of Control – LoC)

    State-Sponsored Terrorism- Continued support for militant groups like LeT and JeM.

    Unresolved status of Jammu & Kashmir and frequent ceasefire violations along the LoC

    Recent Military Escalation- Following the Pahalgam attack, India launched “Operation Sindoor”

    Drone-Based Narco-Terrorism in Punjab through Golden Crescent

    Role of OGW – generate pro-terror content, circulate videos and organise protests to delegitimise the state.

    Sir Creek Issue remains unresolved

    Development Initiatives- BADP and BIM Schemes (“Development-as-Defense” strategy)

    Border Area Development Programme (BADP)

    Centrally Sponsored Scheme to meet the special developmental needs of people living within 0–50 km of the International Border.

    “Model Villages” with socio-economic infrastructure

    Infrastructure Development- Eg- Construction of link roads, bridges, and PHCs

    Livelihood & Skill Development- vocational training in hospitality, agriculture, and handicrafts

    Convergence with the Vibrant Villages Programme (VVP).

    Promotion of Border Tourism- Develops “Border Haats” and tourism circuits

    Digital Connectivity- Implementation of e-Chaupals and Wi-Fi hotspots

    Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme

    For the period 2021-22 to 2025-26 with an outlay of .

    Central Sector Scheme (100% funding by MHA) focused on “Hard Security Infrastructure” and technological modernization.

    Smart Fencing (CIBMS)- uses laser walls, thermal imagers, and unattended ground sensors to detect intrusions.

    All-weather Connectivity- Construction of strategic roads and tunnels by the Border Roads Organization (BRO). Eg- Sela Tunnel and Shinku La Tunnel.

    Frontier Highways- Eg- 1,800 km Highway in Arunachal Pradesh

    Creation of new Border Outposts (BOPs) and Company Operating Bases (COBs) with advanced “hard-kill” anti-drone systems.

    The integration of modern technology with civil-military cooperation is essential to create “Multi-layered Security Shield.”

  • Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.

    Recently, heavy pre-monsoon thundershowers in Bengaluru led to severe Floods. Unlike riverine floods, urban floods are highly localised, rapid-onset, and short-duration, but cause disproportionately high economic and infrastructural damage.

    Causes of urban flooding

    Natural causes

    Natural meteorological phenomena like cyclones, cloud bursts. Eg- Cyclone Tauktae in Mumbai.

    Climate Change – Increase in short-duration, high-intensity rainfall events. Eg- In 2005 Mumbai witnessed 37 inches of rainfall in only 24 hours.

    Sea level rise: by 2050, Mumbai will witness a 25% increase in the intensity of flash floods accompanied by a half-meter rise in the sea level (McKinsey India report)

    Topography: Many Indian cities are located in floodplains or low-lying coastal zones. Eg- Mumbai on the Konkan coast, Kolkata in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

    Anthropogenic causes

    Inadequate Stormwater Drainage Infrastructure – Old, undersized, and poorly maintained drainage networks. Eg- Mumbai’s British-era drainage

    Poor urban planning and encroachment on wetlands

    Bengaluru has lost 80% of its lakes

    Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)

    Concretisation – Expansion of concrete roads, pavements, and buildings reducing infiltration.

    Unregulated dumping of solid waste blocks drains, and stormwater systems

    Deforestation reduces the land’s ability to absorb water, causing rapid runoff into urban areas.

    Weak Enforcement – Lack of floodplain zoning and non-compliance with building regulations.

    Sudden release of water from dams and lakes – Eg- Pune Floods due to Opening of Khadakwasla dam.

    Illegal river sand mining reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody, increasing the speed and scale of stormwater flow. Eg- Cauvery River bed, Tamil Nadu.

    Two major urban floods in the last two decades in India

    Mumbai Floods – 2005

    Trigger – Extremely heavy rainfall (~944 mm in 24 hours)

    Key Features

    Complete failure of stormwater drainage system.

    Severe flooding along the Mithi River floodplain due to encroachment.

    Massive disruption of transport, power supply, and economic activity.

    Exposed vulnerability of coastal megacities to extreme rainfall.

    Chennai Floods – 2015

    Trigger – Intense northeast monsoon rainfall

    Key Features

    Encroachment of wetlands like Pallikaranai marsh.

    Poor coordination in reservoir water release aggravated flooding.

    Prolonged waterlogging in residential and industrial zones.

    Policies and Frameworks in India to Tackle Urban Flooding

    NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flooding (2010) – Recommend city-specific urban flood management plans.

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – Integrates urban flood risk reduction within disaster preparedness and mitigation.

    Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) – Investment in stormwater drainage, sewerage, and water infrastructure.

    Smart Cities Mission – Use of GIS mapping, real-time sensors, and flood monitoring systems.

    Early Warning Systems – IMD and CWC providing impact-based rainfall forecasts.

    Protection of wetlands under Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules.

    Model Building Bye Laws by MoHUA – all buildings having a plot size of 100 sq.m. or, more shall mandatorily include the complete proposal of rainwater harvesting.

    MoHUA has issued Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs) on Urban Flooding in 2017 and published manual on Storm Water Drainage Systems in 2019

    As per NITI aayog, over 40% of India’s population will reside in urban areas by 2030. Thus, flood resilient urban future is essential for Viksit Bharat @2047

    Internal Security

    LWE and N-E insurgency

  • Social media and encrypting messaging services pose a serious security challenge. What measures have been adopted at various levels to address the security implications of social media? Also suggest any other remedies to address the problem.

    India has second-largest social media market with 491 million active users. However, in 2025, these platforms are central to “Grey Zone Warfare” as their architecture creates a “security paradox”

    Challenges Posed by Social Media & Encrypted Messaging

    Social Media Challenges

    Algorithmic Echo Chambers creating polarized “digital silos”. (India Hate Lab report)

    Cognitive Warfare- Eg- “Bot-farms” to build anti-India narratives

    Cyber Stalking and Harassment – Eg- Women targeted through doxxing and revenge porn.

    Online Radicalisation – Eg- ISIS recruitment through social media.

    Encrypted Messaging Challenges

    Traceability Paradox- End-to-end encryption prevents law enforcement from identifying the “first originator”

    Operational Backbone for Terror- Eg- ISIS and LeT using Telegram or Signal

    Serve as the front-end for darknet markets dealing in narcotics and illegal firearms.

    Shadow Financial Hubs- Eg- use of “self-destructing” messages for “Digital Arrest” extortions

    Measures Adopted at Various Levels

    Legal and Regulatory Framework

    IT Rules, 2021 – mandate Traceability, requiring significant social media intermediaries to identify the “first originator” on court orders.

    DPDP Act- Requires data breach notifications to the Data Protection Board within 72 hours.

    Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Section 353 penalizes the spread of misinformation causing public fear.

    Institutional and Operational Measures

    I4C acts as the national nodal point for identifying and removing unlawful content.

    CyberDome Project (Kerala) to monitor the Darknet and social media for criminal patterns.

    “Operation Blackface” of Maharashtra Police Cyber Department for crack down on Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM)

    Global and Social Initiatives

    India actively participates in the UN Convention against Cybercrime (2024) and the Christchurch Call to eliminate extremist content.

    Initiatives like Cyber Swachhta Kendra and the 1930 Helpline promote “Digital Hygiene.”

    Suggested Remedies to Address the Problem

    Metadata Analysis over Decryption- By analyzing “who talks to whom, when, and from where” (metadata), to identify criminal clusters.

    Mandating social media platforms to undergo independent audits of their “Recommendation Engines.”

    Implementing mandatory Digital Watermarking for all AI-generated content (deepfakes).

    Establishing an independent, statutory Digital Ombudsman to provide a “Single-Window” grievance redressal mechanism for citizens

    Mandatory SIM-Binding for messaging apps to prevent the use of international virtual numbers in local scams like “Digital Arrests.”

    Integrating “Cognitive Defense” and digital civics into school and college curricula.

    Formalizing a real-time data-sharing bridge between the I4C and tech giants to instantly “freeze” fraudulent financial flows during the Golden Hour.

    Community Fact-Checking Models- Empowering certified organizations with “Priority Reporting” status on platforms to flag virally dangerous misinformationce.

    Push for a Global Cyber-Extradition Framework to ensure that criminals operating from “Safe Haven” countries can be prosecuted.

    Sovereign Messaging Alternatives- Eg- apps like Sandes for government communication.

    Adopting global best practices

    “Duty of Care” Principle (UK)- Shifting burden of safety from the user to the platform.

    EU’s Digital Services Act for Algorithmic Transparency

    Estonia’s e-residency program using Blockchain

    For “Safe and Trusted Cyberspace” there is need for a “Whole-of-Nation” approach

    Border Management and Security Forces

  • What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life? What strategies have been developed to prevent such a catastrophe?

    Asteroids are rocky, airless remnants from the early formation of the solar system, primarily orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter (asteroid belt). Some asteroids, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), have orbits that bring them close to Earth, raising concerns about impact hazards.

    Key facts about asteroids

    Types –

    C-type (carbonaceous, most common)

    S-type (silicaceous)

    M-type (metal-rich)

    The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that of Earth’s Moon.

    Threat from asteroids

    Historical Evidence – The Chicxulub asteroid impact (~66 million years ago) led to the extinction of dinosaurs.

    Probability Assessment

    Extinction-level asteroids (>10 km) are extremely rare

    City or regional-scale impacts (50-300 m) are more frequent and pose serious human and economic risks.

    Current Scientific Consensus

    Low probability, high impact risk.

    No known large asteroid is on a confirmed collision course with Earth in the foreseeable future.

    No global policy framework or convention to prevent asteroid impact

    Strategies Developed to Prevent or Mitigate Asteroid Impact

    Detection and Tracking – Ground- and space-based surveys continuously monitor NEOs.

    Kinetic Impact Deflection – A spacecraft collides with the asteroid to slightly alter its trajectory. Demonstrated successfully by NASA’s DART mission (2022).

    Gravity Tractor – A spacecraft hovers near the asteroid, using mutual gravitational attraction to gradually change its path.

    Nuclear Deflection (Last Resort) – Use of a nuclear device near (not on) the asteroid to vaporise surface material.

    NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, accurately characterizes the orbits of all known near-Earth objects, predicts their close approaches with Earth

    The International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) – UN-endorsed, global collaboration of over 60 scientific institutions that detects, tracks, and characterizes Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).

    United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has recognised asteroid impact hazards as a global risk transcending national boundaries.

    While extinction-level impacts are extremely rare, the consequences would be catastrophic, justifying sustained vigilance.

  • Elucidate the importance of buffer stocks for stabilizing agricultural prices in India. What are the challenges associated with the storage of buffer stock? Discuss.

    PDS is the world’s largest food transfer programme and social safety net, accounting for around 50% of India’s overall social assistance budget. Buffer Stock is the foundational pillar of this system.

    Buffer Stock Norms

    Introduced during the 4th Five Year Plan (1969-74).

    Fixed by cabinet committee on Economic Affairs on quarterly basis

    In 2025, rice and wheat stocks in Central Pool stands at 736 Lakh MT against buffer stock norm of 411 Lakh MT

    Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilising Agricultural Prices in India

    Supports farmers through MSP procurement: Prevents distress sales during bumper harvests.

    Controls consumer prices through Open Market Sale Scheme. Eg- In 2022-23, FCI released 34.82 lakh tonnes of wheat.

    Ensures food security: ensures uninterrupted supply for NFSA, ICDS, PM-POSHAN (Cover 81 crore people)

    Checks hoarding: Strategic release of stocks curbs artificial scarcity and black-marketing. Eg- Release of Pulses by NAFED

    Acts as a safety net during supply disruptions and emergencies. Eg- during COVID.

    Inter-state distribution stability: Ensures consistent supply to deficit states.

    Market confidence: Adequate stocks signal stability and prevent panic buying

    Export of extra produce: Eg- Surplus wheat from buffer stocks was exported to Africa in 2021

    Challenges Associated with the Storage of Buffer Stock

    Excessive stocking by FCI increases carrying costs. Eg- Central pool rice stocks 4 times the buffer

    Heavy reliance on CAP (cover-and-plinth) storage leads to high wastage. (40% of total food)

    High transport costs due to concentration of procurement in limited states. Eg- 60% godowns in 5 states.

    Overstocking results in rotting and quality deterioration. Over 6 lakh tonnes of foodgrains rotted in FCI godowns

    High Storage Cost – Eg- FCI’s annual storage cost for buffer stocks reached

    Pilferage and Theft due to poor security measures and leakages in the distribution network.

    Regional procurement imbalances: Eg- Eastern and NE states remain under-procured

    Lack of Modern Technology – lack silos, temperature control, and humidity monitoring. Only 20% of buffer stock stored in modern silos

    Environmental concerns: Excess procurement of rice strains groundwater, fertiliser use, and stubble burning.

    Way Forward

    Technological Integration: Eg- blockchain for transparent and secure buffer stock management.

    Expansion of modern silos equipped with temperature and humidity control. (Shanta Kumar Committee)

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers

    Expanding FCI Private Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) Scheme to involve the private sector in creating modern godowns.

    Revision of Buffer Stock Norms based on actual requirement and demand patterns. (Ashok Gulati Committee)

    Strengthening storage is essential for a more efficient, resilient grain management system.

    Agriculture Marketing and supply chains

  • What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

    As per Hyogo Framework of Action, Disaster resilience refers to the ability of individuals, communities, systems, and nations to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the impacts of hazards while retaining essential functions.

    Determination of disaster resilience

    Exposure to Hazard – Settlements on riverbanks or seismic zones are more vulnerable. Eg- Joshimath (Uttarakhand)

    Adaptive or Coping Capacity – Ability to anticipate, respond, absorb and recover from a disaster. Eg- Japan’s high adaptive capacity to earthquakes

    Socio-economic Conditions – Poverty, marginalisation and inequity increase susceptibility to harm. Eg- Disaster induced migration

    Governance and Institutional Readiness– Eg- Singapore’s Integrated crisis management agency (SCDF)

    Environmental resilience increases or reduces hazard impact. Eg- ‘Day Zero’ in Chennai due to wetland encroachment.

    Social Networks and Support Systems: – Communities with strong social cohesion, community organizations, and support networks are more resilient to respond to and recover from disasters.

    Health status and access to healthcare services – Eg- Elderly and Children are less resilient to post disaster illness

    Elements of a Disaster Resilience Framework

    Risk Knowledge – Hazard mapping, vulnerability analysis, and risk assessments to understand who is at risk and why. Eg-GIS-based flood and landslide susceptibility maps.

    Early Warning Systems– Eg-IMD’s cyclone early-warning system reduces mortality drastically.

    Preventive Measures – Nature-based solutions, resilient infrastructure, land-use planning, seismic codes, floodplain zoning. Eg-Mangrove restoration under MISHTI.

    Preparedness & Response Capacity – Training volunteers, conducting mock drills, strengthening NDRF/SDRF capacities. Eg-Aapda Mitra programme in 350+ districts.

    Institutional ‘capacity building’ – Strong governance, coordination between NDMA, SDMA, district authorities, and urban bodies.

    Recovery, Rehabilitation & “Build Back Better” – stronger housing, better planning, safer infrastructure. Eg- Japan’s Post-2011 Tƍhoku Earthquake & Tsunami Reconstruction

    Social & Community Resilience – Inclusive decision-making, empowering women, local groups, and indigenous knowledge systems.

    Financial Resilience – Insurance, disaster funds (NDRF/SDRF), parametric insurance, contingency financing.

    Global Targets of the Sendai Framework (2015-2030)

    Reduce Global Disaster Mortality – Substantial reduction by 2030 compared to 2005-2015 baseline.

    Reduce Number of Affected People – Significant decrease in people injured, displaced, or needing basic services during disasters.

    Reduce Economic Losses – Lower global disaster-related economic losses relative to global GDP.

    Reduce Damage to Critical Infrastructure – Protect health facilities, water systems, schools, and public infrastructure.

    Increase Number of Countries with DRR Strategies – All nations to develop national and local disaster risk reduction strategies.

    Enhance International Cooperation – Increase support from developed to developing countries for capacity-building, technology, and finance.

    Ensure multi-hazard early warning systems and accessible risk information for everyone.

    Priorities for Action

    Understanding disaster risk in all its dimensions

    Strengthening disaster risk governance

    Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

    Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to Build Back Better

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

  • The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

    As per the report of the Global Commission on the Economics of Water, the world’s water systems are under “unprecedented stress” and the demand for fresh water will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030.

    Global freshwater Crisis

    4.4 billion people lack access to safe drinking water

    703 million people have no access to clean drinking water.

    Agriculture consumes 70% of the world’s freshwater

    India

    4% of the world’s freshwater resources

    600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    By 2030, 700 million people could be displaced due to water shortages (UNICEF, 2025)

    Global water crisis could result in losses of up to $8 trillion over the next 25 years (Global Commission on the Economics of Water, 2024)

    Alternative Technologies That Can Solve the Freshwater Crisis

    Desalination Technologies to convert seawater/brackish water into potable water.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse through Membrane Bioreactors (MBR), tertiary treatment and advanced oxidation.

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting using condensation (cooling below dew point).

    Solar Distillation for low-cost, off-grid evaporation-condensation.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) using recharge wells, percolation tanks and treated wastewater.

    Fog & Dew Harvesting in coastal and high-elevation areas.

    Smart Irrigation Technologies (drip, soil moisture sensors) to reduce agricultural water demand.

    Precision Leak Detection Systems using IoT to minimise distribution losses.

    Rainwater Harvesting Systems integrated with rooftops, storage tanks and recharge pits.

    Floating Solar + Desal Units for dual energy-water generation.

    Three Technologies With Key Merits and Demerits

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) – Eg – Source Hydropanels deployed in Ladakh schools.

    Merits:

    Decentralized, off-grid water access for remote areas.

    No reliance on groundwater or rainfall.

    Scalable from household to community systems.

    Demerits:

    Low yield in low-humidity climates.

    High per-litre cost for advanced AWH systems.

    Requires maintenance of filters/desiccants.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse – Eg – Singapore’s NEWater, Nagpur’s Bhandewadi recycling plant.

    Merits:

    Reduces pressure on freshwater sources by closing the loop.

    Low energy requirement compared to desalination.

    Ensures year-round supply, even in dry regions.

    Demerits:

    Public resistance to potable reuse (“yuck factor”).

    Risk of contamination if systems are poorly maintained.

    High initial investment for advanced tertiary treatment.

    Desalination using Reverse Osmosis & Thermal Distillation– Eg – Israel’s Sorek RO plant, India’s Minjur RO plant (Chennai).

    Merits:

    Large and climate-independent supply from oceans.

    Useful for coastal megacities facing groundwater depletion. Eg- Mumbai

    Continuous and reliable output even in droughts.

    Demerits:

    High energy consumption, increasing carbon footprint.

    Brine discharge harms marine ecosystems.

    High capital and operating cost for poorer regions.

    A portfolio approach, not a single technology, will determine long-term water security.

  • What are the major challenges faced by Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.

    The agriculture sector utilizes approximately 78% of India’s total usable water resources. However, 45% of agricultural land is rainfed.

    Major challenges faced by Indian Irrigation system

    P – Political Factors

    Political populism – Eg- power and irrigation subsidies in Punjab

    Inter-State Water Disputes – Conflicts such as the Cauvery Water Dispute and the Satluj Yamuna Link Canal hinder efficient water distribution and irrigation planning.

    Prioritization of Large-Scale Projects – Political support often favors large-scale projects that benefit influential farmers and regions.

    E – Economic Factors

    Declining Public Investment since the 1980s, with a shift toward input subsidies rather than capital investment. (Economic Survey)

    High Cost of Irrigation Infrastructure

    85% farmers have <2 ha, making modern irrigation systems uneconomical

    S – Social Factors

    Weak Water Users Associations (WUAs) – lack capacity and resources.

    Uneven Irrigation Distribution – Northern & coastal regions have better irrigation, while central and western India suffer inadequate supply.

    T – Technological Factors

    Low Water Use Efficiency (WUE) – Flood irrigation (~70%) leads to evaporation, runoff, and seepage losses.

    Aging & Poorly Maintained Canal Systems – Unlined canals cause 40-50% seepage losses.

    Low adoption of technology – Eg- micro-irrigation covers only 7.6% of the net sown area

    L – Legal / Governance Factors

    Weak Enforcement of Water Governance Rules (Mihir Shah Committee)

    E – Environmental Factors

    Groundwater Depletion – Eg- Punjab’s water table declines by ~1 meter annually.

    Poor drainage leads to salinization and reduced soil fertility, especially in canal-irrigated regions.

    Climate Change Impact – Eg- glacial retreat in the Himalayas threatens long-term river flows.

    Government Measures for Efficient Irrigation Management

    PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) – Promotes micro-irrigation (drip/sprinkler) through subsidies.

    Components: Har Khet Ko Pani, Per Drop More Crop, Watershed Development.

    Micro-Irrigation Fund (NABARD) – Dedicated fund of to expand drip and sprinkler systems.

    Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) – Focus on groundwater management in water-stressed districts through community participation.

    Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) – Financial assistance for completion of long-pending major and medium irrigation projects.

    Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) by strengthening Water Users Associations (WUAs).

    Bureau of Water Use Efficiency under Ministry of Jal Shakti – To improve water use efficiency by 20%

    State level initiatives

    Mission Kakatiya, Telangana – Restoration of 46,531 minor irrigation tanks

    Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan, Maharashtra – watershed development, farm ponds, desilting of streams.

    Crop Diversification Initiatives

    Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

    Increase in MSP for Pulses and Millets. Eg- 60% for Ragi

    PM KUSUM: Promotes the use of solar-powered pumps for micro-irrigation

    Timely and efficient implementations of government programmes is essential for achieving equitable, efficient and sustainable irrigation management. (“Vision for Sujalam Bharat”)