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GS Paper: GS3

  • RBI proposes rationalising regulations on Export-Import Transactions

    Why in the News?

    Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed to rationalise regulations governing export and import transactions. The aim is to promote ease of doing business and empower banks to provide more efficient service to their foreign exchange customers.

    RBI Proposal and Directions

    • The RBI issued ‘Regulation of Foreign Trade under Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999 – Draft Regulations and Directions.’
    • Key propositions include:
      • Repatriation Timeline: The full export value of goods and services must be realised and repatriated to India within 9 months from the date of shipment for goods and the date of invoice for services.
      • Caution Listing: Exporters who fail to realise the full value within the specified time may be caution-listed by the authorised dealer.
      • Caution-Listed Exporters: Caution-listed exporters can undertake exports only against receipt of advance payment in full or an irrecoverable letter of credit, to the satisfaction of the authorised dealer.
      • Advance Remittance Restrictions: No advance remittance for the import of gold and silver is permitted unless specifically approved by the RBI.

    Expected Benefits 

    • Ease of Doing Business: The proposed regulations are intended to promote ease of doing business, especially for small exporters and importers.
    • Empowerment of Banks: The regulations aim to empower authorised dealer banks to provide quicker and more efficient service to their foreign exchange customers.

    About Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999

    • The FEMA, 1999, regulates foreign exchange and trade in India.
    • FEMA replaced the older Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), 1973.

    How does FEMA regulate EXIM Transaction?

    Regulation under FEMA
    Resident Indian Criteria Defined in Section 2(v) of FEMA;

    A person residing in India for more than 182 days during the course of the preceding financial year.
    Current Account Transactions Permitted freely for EXIM activities, including trade payments and remittances.
    Capital Account Transactions Regulated by RBI, includes FDI in export-oriented units and overseas investments by Indian entities.
    Documentation and Declarations Exporters and importers must furnish declarations to RBI to ensure compliance and monitor foreign exchange.
    Export Declarations Declare the value of goods/services exported, expected earnings, and timeframe for realization.
    Import Declarations Provide details of goods/services imported, and foreign exchange spent, and ensure payments through authorized channels.
    Authorized Dealers Only RBI-approved dealers (banks/financial institutions) can handle foreign exchange transactions for EXIM.
    Import Payment Regulations Payments must be made through authorized channels within prescribed time limits, complying with DGFT terms.
    Foreign Currency Accounts Entities can maintain foreign currency accounts for efficient handling of foreign exchange for EXIM activities.

    Significance of FEMA in Regulating EXIM Transactions

    • Facilitates Trade: By providing a clear regulatory framework, FEMA facilitates smoother and more efficient EXIM transactions, contributing to the growth of international trade.
    • Economic Stability: Ensures that foreign exchange earnings and expenditures are monitored and regulated, maintaining economic stability and preventing illegal outflows.
    • Investor Confidence: A transparent and regulated foreign exchange environment boosts investor confidence, attracting more foreign investment.
    • Liberalization: Replaces the stringent controls of FERA with a more liberal approach, encouraging businesses to engage in global trade.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following constitutes Capital Account?

    1. Foreign Loans

    2. Foreign Direct Investment

    3. Private Remittances

    4. Portfolio Investment

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 1, 2 and 4

    (c) 2, 3 and 4

    (d) 1, 3 and 4

  • [pib] Metal Oxide Nano-composite developed for Environmental Clean-up

    Why in the News?

     A new metal oxide nanocomposite has been developed by The Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology (IASST)  that can help photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants like dyes and pharmaceuticals and hence can be used as sustainable technologies for cleaning up the environment.

    Understanding Photocatalysis and Metal Oxides

    • Photocatalysis is a process that uses light to accelerate chemical reactions, particularly useful for degrading harmful substances in water and air.
    • They facilitate this reaction without being consumed.
    • Examples: Titanium Dioxide (TiO2), Zinc Oxide (ZnO)  and Tungsten Trioxide (WO3)

    How do they work?

    • When exposed to light, these metal oxides generate electron-hole pairs.
    • These pairs are highly reactive and can break down pollutants into harmless by-products.
      • Work Efficiency: The overall efficiency of this process depends on several factors, including the choice of metal oxide, its crystal structure, light intensity, pollutant concentration, pH level, and the amount of catalyst used.
      • Optimisation: Optimizing these factors is crucial for maximising the degradation rates of pollutants. Adjustments in the type of metal oxide, light parameters, and other conditions can significantly enhance the photocatalytic efficiency.

    Breakthrough by IASST: NiTF Composite

    • The team developed a nanocomposite called NiTF, which stands for Nickel-doped Titanium Dioxide on Fuller’s Earth. 
    • This innovative material combines the photocatalytic properties of titanium dioxide with the adsorption capabilities of Fuller’s earth, a type of natural clay.

    What is Fuller Earth?

    • Fuller’s earth is a term for various clays used as an absorbent, filter, or bleaching agent.
    • Products labeled fuller’s earth typically consist of palygorskite or bentonite.
    • Primary modern uses include as absorbents for oil, grease, and animal waste, and as a carrier for pesticides and fertilizers

    Testing and Results

    • The NiTF nanocomposite was tested for its ability to decolorize methylene blue, a common dye.
      • Methylene blue is a persistent pollutant toxic to aquatic life, harmful to human health, and causes colour pollution in water bodies.
    • The results were impressive, with the composite achieving a 96.15% decolorization of the dye solution at a pH of 9.0 under visible light within 90 minutes.
    • Fuller’s earth enhanced the TiO2’s ability to adsorb pollutants, even in the absence of light.
    • This suggests that the NiTF nanocomposite could be a cost-effective solution for environmental photocatalysis, providing benefits even in low-light conditions.

    Potential Applications

    • Catalysis: The nanocomposite can enhance the efficiency of various chemical reactions.
    • Energy Storage: It has the potential to improve systems for storing energy.
    • Sensors: The material can be used to develop highly sensitive detection devices.
    • Optoelectronics: The nanocomposite can advance technologies that use light for electronic devices.
    • Biomedical Fields: It can be applied in medical treatments and diagnostics.
    • Coatings: The material can be used to create protective and functional surfaces.
    • Renewable Energy: It can facilitate water splitting to produce renewable energy.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to the use of nanotechnology in the health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.
    2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [pib] 13th Edition of Exercise MAITREE in Thailand

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Army contingent departed for the 13th edition of the India-Thailand joint military Exercise MAITREE.

    About Exercise Maitree 

    • Maitree is an annual bilateral military exercise between the Indian Army and the Royal Thai Army that has been conducted since 2006.
    • It is conducted alternatively in India and Thailand each year
    • The latest edition in 2019 took place in Umroi, Meghalaya
    • The exercise involves company-level joint training in jungle and urban scenarios
      • Objective: Enhancing combined capabilities in executing joint counter-insurgency and terrorist operations in jungle and urban environments under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.

    Training Focus:

    • It focuses on joint planning, tactical drills, physical fitness exercises, and sharing best practices.
    • Key activities include setting up joint operation centres, intelligence gathering, using drones, securing landing zones, and conducting special heliborne operations.

    Significance:

    • Exercise Maitree is significant as both India and Thailand face security challenges from terrorism, especially in southern Thailand which is prone to attacks.
    • It is part of the growing defense cooperation between India and Thailand, which signed an MoU on defense cooperation in 2012.

    India’s Defence Exercises with SE Asian Neighbours:

    India has conducted several joint military exercises with its Southeast Asian neighbors in recent years to strengthen defense cooperation and interoperability:

    • Exercise Garuda Shakti: This is a bilateral exercise between the Indian and Indonesian Special Forces. The latest iteration was held in November 2022 at the Sangga Buana Training Area in Indonesia.
    • Exercise Mitra Shakti: This is a joint exercise between the Indian and Sri Lankan armies. The latest edition was conducted in 2022.
    • Exercise VINBAX: This is a joint military exercise between India and Vietnam. The 2022 edition was the 3rd iteration of this exercise.
    • IMBEX: This is a joint military exercise between India and Myanmar. The latest edition was held in 2017-18.
    • EKUVERIN: This is a joint military exercise between the Indian and Maldivian forces. The 11th edition was conducted in 2022.
    • CORPAT: India conducts Coordinated Patrol (CORPAT) exercises with maritime neighbors like Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia to enhance maritime cooperation and security in the region.
    • AIME 2023: This was the first ASEAN-India Maritime Exercise, held in May 2023 with the participation of navies from India, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

     

    PYQ:

    [2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operation was a goal of this operation.
    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

    Select the answer using the code given below :

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 1, 2 and 4

    (c) 1, 3 and 4

    (d) 2, 3 and 4

  • What is on the agenda for the 16th Finance Commission?  

    Why in the news? 

    The 16th Finance Commission, under Article 280, focuses on devolving funds. Amendments like 73rd and 74th mandate it to bolster state funds for panchayats and municipalities.

    About 16th Finance Commission

    • The 16th Finance Commission of India was constituted on December 31, 2023, with Dr. Arvind Panagariya as its Chairman.
    • The President of India appointed the Commission in pursuance of Article 280(1) of the Constitution

    How do other countries devolve funds to their local governments?

    • International Comparison: Countries like South Africa, Mexico, the Philippines, and Brazil allocate significantly higher percentages of their GDP (1.6% to 5.1%) to urban local bodies compared to India’s 0.5%.
    • Importance of Intergovernmental Transfers (IGTs): IGTs make up about 40% of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) revenue in India but suffer from unpredictability, lack of earmarking for vulnerable groups, and horizontal equity.
    • Financial Health of ULBs: Despite efforts by multiple Finance Commissions, financial devolution to cities in India remains inadequate, affecting city productivity and quality of life.

    Why is the Census significant?

    • Data Dependence: The absence of the 2021 Census data makes it challenging to accurately assess urban growth and demographic changes crucial for evidence-based fiscal devolution.
    • Urban Dynamics: India has approximately 4,000 statutory towns, an equal number of Census towns, and a large number of effectively urban villages, which need accurate enumeration for effective planning and resource allocation.
    • Migration Impact: The Census data is essential to capture the significant migration to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities, impacting their infrastructure and service needs.

    What about cities and the Taxation system?

    • Impact of GST: The introduction of GST has reduced ULBs’ tax revenue (excluding property tax) significantly, impacting their financial autonomy.
    • Low IGTs: Intergovernmental transfers from States to ULBs in India are minimal (around 0.5% of GDP), much lower than other developing nations, exacerbating fiscal challenges.
    • Constitutional Provisions: Despite the 74th constitutional amendment aimed at empowering ULBs, progress has been limited over three decades, hampering urban development.
    • Parallel Agencies: The growth of parallel agencies and schemes like MP/MLA Local Area Development Schemes distort the federal structure and weaken ULBs’ financial and operational autonomy.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhanced Intergovernmental Transfers (IGTs): Increase IGTs from States to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) to at least 2% of GDP, ensuring predictability and earmarking for vulnerable groups.
    • Reform in Urban Governance and Fiscal Autonomy: Strengthen constitutional provisions to empower ULBs further, reducing dependence on parallel agencies like MP/MLA Local Area Development Schemes.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you know about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • What is Project Nexus that RBI has signed up for?

    Why in the news? 

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has become a part of Project Nexus, a global initiative aimed at facilitating instant cross-border retail payments by connecting domestic Fast Payments Systems (FPSs).

    What is Project Nexus?

    • Project Nexus is conceptualized by the Innovation Hub of the Bank for International Settlements (BIS).
    • It is the first BIS Innovation Hub project in the payments area moving towards live implementation.
    • Aim: To enhance cross-border payments by connecting multiple domestic instant payment systems (IPS) globally.
    • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has joined Project Nexus, aiming to interlink India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) with the Fast Payments Systems (FPSs) of Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
    • The platform is designed to be extended to more countries in the future.

    About Fast Payments Systems (FPSs):

    Fast payment systems (FPSs) are real-time payment systems that enable the immediate transfer of funds between accounts. Some key points about FPSs:

    • FPSs allow for the fast, secure, and low-cost processing of retail transactions, ensuring funds are immediately available to the recipient.
    • FPSs are becoming increasingly popular globally, with over 100 jurisdictions now having access to fast payment systems. They foster competition among payment service providers and serve as a gateway to additional financial services.
    • The design of FPSs is important, as they have public good characteristics. Factors that contribute to greater adoption of FPSs include central bank involvement, inclusion of non-bank providers, more use cases, and more cross-border connections.
    • The Payment and Settlement Systems Act, of 2007 regulates and supervises payment systems in India. It designates the Reserve Bank of India has the authority for that purpose and all related matters.

    What are the benefits of the platform?

    • Standardization: Project Nexus standardizes the way IPS connect to each other, simplifying the process.
    • Single Connection: Payment system operators can connect to the Nexus platform once, allowing them to reach all other countries on the network without building custom connections for each.
    • Instant Payments: Enables cross-border payments from sender to recipient within 60 seconds in most cases.
    • Cost Efficiency: Provides near-zero cost for sending and receiving payments.
    • Growth Acceleration: Significantly accelerates the growth of instant cross-border payments by leveraging existing instant payment systems.

    Way forward: 

    • Expand Membership: Actively encourage more countries to join Project Nexus, thereby increasing the global reach and impact of the platform. (Indonesia is joining in the near future)
    • Enhance Technological Infrastructure: Invest in robust and scalable technological infrastructure to support seamless integration and interoperability among different FPSs.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • Worlds Oldest Prehistoric Ostrich Nest discovered in Andhra 

    ostrich
    PC: India Today

    Why in the News?

    Archaeologists have discovered a 41,000-year-old ostrich nest in Prakasam, Andhra Pradesh.

    Prehistoric Ostrich Nest: Details of the Discovery

    • The nest, identified as the world’s oldest known ostrich nest, measures 9-10 feet in width.
    • The nest was once home to 9-11 eggs but was capable of holding 30-40 eggs at a time.
    • Ostriches are mega omnivores, weighing between 90 and 140 kg and standing seven to nine feet tall.

    What are Megafauna?

    • Megafauna generally refers to animals weighing more than 50 kg, though scientific definitions vary.
    • The term was first used by Alfred Russel Wallace in his 1876 book, “The Geographical Distribution of Animals.”
    • Megafauna can be classified into:
      • Megaherbivores (plant-eaters),
      • Megacarnivores (meat-eaters), and
      • Megaomnivores (who eat both plants and meat).

    Historical Evidence of Megafauna

    • Early Documentation: Richard Lydekker in 1884 presented the earliest documented evidence of ostriches in the subcontinent, identifying the extinct Struthio asiaticus in the Dhok Pathan deposits in Upper Siwalik Hills, present-day Pakistan.
    • Discoveries in Maharashtra: Archaeologist S A Sali in 1989 reported ostrich eggshell beads and engraved pieces dating back to 50,000–40,000 years ago at Patne, Maharashtra.
    • CCMB Research in 2017: Researchers at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) in Hyderabad established the presence of ostriches in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat 25,000 years ago.

    Broader Implications and Studies

    • Biogeographical Dispersion: The presence of ostriches in India is attributed to bio-geographical dispersion from the continental drifting of Gondwanaland.
    • Late Quaternary Extinctions: The study, titled ‘Late Quaternary extinctions in the Indian Subcontinent,’ established that the disappearance of large animals began around 30,000 years ago, coinciding with the arrival of humans.
    • Co-Evolution Hypothesis: The study supports the hypothesis that fauna and their resilience to extinction resulted from coevolution with hominins, with geographic isolation and abiotic factors accelerating extinction.

    PYQ:

    [2018] The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of:

    (a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.

    (b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.

    (c) Large-scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.

    (d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution and global climate change.

  • [pib] Fauna of India Checklist Portal

    Why in the News?

    • The Union Minister of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has launched a portal documenting all animal species in India.
      • The Portal was launched on the 109th Foundation Day of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) in Kolkata.

    Back2Basics: Zoological Survey of India

    • The ZSI was set up by British zoologist Thomas Nelson Annandale, in 1916.
    • It is the premier taxonomic research organisation in India based in Kolkata.
    • It was established to promote surveys, exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge of various aspects of the exceptionally rich animal life of India.
    • The ZSI had its genesis as the Zoological Section of the Indian Museum at Calcutta in 1875.
    • Since its inception, the ZSI has been documenting the diversity and distribution of the fauna of India towards carrying out its mandate of conducting exploration-cum-taxonomic-research programmes.
    • The ZSI has published an extremely large amount of information on all animal taxa, from Protozoa to Mammalia.

    About the Fauna of India Checklist Portal

    • The portal consists of records of more than 100,000 animal species, prepared by over 150 scientists of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) over two years.
    • This checklist is the first comprehensive document on faunal species in India, covering 121 checklists of all known taxa across 36 phyla, including endemic, threatened, and scheduled species.
    • It is a compilation of all animal species recorded in India since the 1750s, including endemic, threatened, and scheduled species.
    • It provides essential data for conservation and management efforts, forming the basis for all biological sciences.
    • Significance of Portal: 
      • With this, India has become the first country to prepare a checklist of its entire fauna, covering 104,561 species, positioning itself as a global leader in biodiversity conservation.
      • The comprehensive documentation of India’s fauna aligns with Mission LiFE by providing crucial data for biodiversity conservation.

    Details from the ZSI Report

    • A 2023 ZSI report highlights that India is one of the world’s 17 megadiverse nations, hosting around 7-8% of the world’s documented species and containing four of the 34 globally recognised biodiversity hotspots.
    • The report lists 641 discoveries made by scientists and experts from India during 2023 with Kerala topping the list, followed by West Bengal.
    • It includes 442 new species globally and 199 newly recorded species in India.

    Significant Discoveries in 2023

    • New Species: The 2023 findings include 112 hymenopterans, 86 arachnids, 47 new fishes, 20 reptiles, and two mammals.
    • New Mammals: An ibex species found in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh, named Capra himalayensis, and a new bat species, Miniopterus srinii, was discovered in Kodagu district, Karnataka.
    • State Rankings: Kerala recorded the highest number of new discoveries with 101, followed by West Bengal with 72, Tamil Nadu with 62, and Arunachal Pradesh and Karnataka with 45 each.

    About Mission LiFE

    • Mission LiFE, or Lifestyle for Environment, is a global mass movement initiated by India to encourage individual and community action towards environmental protection and preservation.
    • It was inaugurated by the PM Modi at the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow in November 2021.
    • The program aims to mobilise one billion Indians and individuals worldwide to adopt sustainable lifestyles.
    • It aligns with the P3 model, promoting Pro Planet People and fostering a sense of collective responsibility.
    • It operates based on the principles of ‘Lifestyle of the planet, for the planet, and by the planet’.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to India’s Biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are:

    (a) Birds

    (b) Primates

    (c) Reptiles

    (d) Amphibians

  • India lacks diagnostic tests for emerging infectious diseases

    Why in the news?

    The detection of a Zika virus infection in Pune has once again raised concerns regarding India’s readiness to diagnose emerging infectious diseases.

    Recent Outbreaks in Various Regions of India

    • Zika Virus: Recent cases of Zika virus in Pune and previous outbreaks in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh highlight sporadic but concerning outbreaks across India.
    • Avian Influenza: Ongoing outbreaks affecting poultry, with occasional human cases reported, indicating challenges in surveillance and testing.
    • Nipah Virus: Multiple outbreaks in Kerala and sporadic cases in West Bengal underscore the recurrent nature of Nipah virus outbreaks in India.

    India’s Lack of Significant Zika Surveillance and Other Diseases

    • Limited Diagnostic Capabilities: India faces challenges with the absence of approved diagnostic tests for the Zika virus, relying on clinical symptoms and selective testing, which may lead to underreporting.
    • Surveillance Gaps: There is a notable gap in systematic surveillance systems specifically tailored for Zika and other emerging infectious diseases, hampering early detection and containment efforts.
    • Infrastructure Deficiencies: The country’s diagnostic infrastructure outside major institutes is inadequate, affecting the timely identification and response to outbreaks of diseases like Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza.
    • Dependency on Apex Institutes: Diagnostic facilities are largely concentrated in apex national institutes, limiting accessibility and delaying the implementation of crucial public health measures during outbreaks.

    Impacts of Unavailability of Infrastructure

    • Delayed Response: Lack of accessible diagnostics delays the identification and isolation of cases, contact tracing, and implementation of containment measures during outbreaks.
    • Loss of Time: Delays in releasing genomic sequences and validating diagnostic tests impede the rapid development and deployment of effective diagnostics.

    Way Forward (Role of ICMR)

    • Enhanced Surveillance: ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) should lead efforts to decentralize testing facilities, ensuring availability at district and sub-district levels.
    • Capacity Building: Develop accessible and affordable diagnostic tests for Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza, leveraging lessons from COVID-19 testing infrastructure expansion.
    • Genomic Surveillance: Establish a system for the rapid release of whole genome sequences into public repositories like GISAID to enhance understanding and response capabilities.
    • Collaboration: Foster collaboration with industry and research institutions to streamline diagnostic test approvals and improve preparedness for future outbreaks.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid the management of the pandemic. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • What was the tussle over Covaxin IPR?

    Why in the News?

    • Bharat Biotech International Limited (BBIL), maker of the indigenous coronavirus vaccine Covaxin, admitted to an “inadvertent error” in patent filings. The error involved failing to include scientists from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) as co-inventors in the patent filings.

    COVAXIN Story

    • BBIL patented the process of making a batch of vaccines from virus strains provided by ICMR-NIV (National Institute of Virology).
    • ICMR-NIV’s role involved extracting viruses, identifying characteristics, conducting tests, and qualifying strains for vaccine development.
      • ICMR funded these clinical trials with ₹35 crore and incurred costs in developing Covaxin.
      • In return, ICMR was to receive 5% of the royalties BBIL earned from the sale of Covaxin.

    Vaccine Patents in India 

    • In India, patents, including those for vaccines, are governed by the Patents Act, 1970, and its subsequent amendments.
    • This act aligns with the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) under the World Trade Organization (WTO).

    Key Provisions of the Patents Act, 1970:

    • Patentable Inventions:
        • An invention must be novel, involve an inventive step, and be capable of industrial application.
        • Section 3 of the Patents Act outlines what are not considered inventions, which includes methods of treatment, and processes for medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic, diagnostic, therapeutic, or other treatments of human beings.
    • India grants both process and product patents:
      • Product Patents: Grant a monopoly over a specific drug.
      • Process Patents: Prevent competitors from using the same sequence of steps to create a similar product.
    • Compulsory Licensing:
      • Under Section 84, compulsory licenses can be issued if the patented invention is not available to the public at a reasonably affordable price, or if the reasonable requirements of the public are not being met.
    • Bolar Provision:
      • Section 107A allows the use of patented inventions, including vaccines, for the purpose of research and development to obtain regulatory approval before the patent expires.

    Why was the ICMR not included?

    • Bharat Biotech initially excluded ICMR from patent applications because they viewed the ICMR’s role primarily as providing virus strains and conducting clinical trials, rather than being directly involved in the technical processes of vaccine development.
    • There might have been a miscommunication or oversight regarding the understanding of intellectual property rights and inventorship between BBIL and ICMR initially.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Bringing out the circumstances in 2005 which forced amendment to the section 3(d) in Indian Patent Law, 1970, discuss how it has been utilized by the Supreme Court in its judgement in rejecting Novartis’ patent application for ‘Glivec’. Discuss briefly the pros and cons of the decision. (200 words)

    [2014] In a globalized world, Intellectual Property Rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly distinguish between the terms—Copyrights, Patents and Trade Secrets.

  • Activated Carbon Production from Coconut Husks for Supercapacitors

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, have developed a way to make activated carbon from coconut husks, which are a common leftover from farming in Kerala. This activated carbon is well-suited for making supercapacitors.

    Back2Basics: Supercapacitors

    • Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage devices that bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and batteries.
    • They store energy through the electrostatic separation of charges rather than through chemical reactions as in batteries.
    • This allows supercapacitors to charge and discharge much faster than batteries.

    Key Characteristics:

    • High Power Density: Supercapacitors can deliver and accept charge much more rapidly than batteries.
    • Long Cycle Life: They can endure millions of charge-discharge cycles without significant degradation.
    • Wide Operating Temperature Range: Supercapacitors perform well in a broad range of temperatures, making them suitable for various applications.

    Structure and Components:

    • Electrodes: Made of materials like activated carbon, carbon aerogels, or graphene, which have high surface areas.
    • Electrolyte: The medium that allows ionic conductivity between the electrodes, typically a liquid or gel.
    • Separator: A porous membrane that prevents electrical contact between the electrodes but allows ionic movement.

    What is Activated Carbon?

    • Activated Carbon, also known as activated charcoal, is a highly porous form of carbon.
    • It is processed to have small, low-volume pores with increased surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions.
    • It is widely used for purification, decontamination, and as a filtration medium.
    • Key Characteristics:
      • High Surface Area: Due to its extensive network of pores, activated carbon has a very high surface area, typically ranging from 500 to 1500 m²/g.
      • Porosity: The structure includes micropores, mesopores, and macropores, allowing it to adsorb a variety of molecules.

    How is it produced?

    • Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials such as coconut shells, peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch.
    • The production involves two main steps:
    1. Carbonization: The raw material is subjected to high temperatures (600-900°C) in an inert atmosphere (usually nitrogen or argon) to remove volatile components.
    2. Activation/Oxidation: The carbonized material is treated with oxidizing agents (such as steam or carbon dioxide) at high temperatures (800-1000°C) to develop a porous structure.

    Types:

    • Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC): Finely ground carbon particles primarily used in liquid phase applications.
    • Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Larger particles used in both liquid and gas phase applications, such as water and air filtration.
    • Extruded Activated Carbon (EAC): Cylindrical pellets used mainly for gas phase applications due to their low pressure drop and high mechanical strength.
    • Impregnated Activated Carbon: Activated carbon treated with chemicals to enhance its adsorption capacity for specific contaminants.

    Applications:

    • Water Treatment: Removes contaminants like chlorine, odors, and organic compounds from drinking water.
    • Air Purification: Adsorbs volatile organic compounds (VOCs), odors, and airborne pollutants.
    • Medical Uses: Used in poisoning cases to absorb toxins in the gastrointestinal tract.
    • Industrial Processes: Utilized in the recovery of solvents, purification of gases, and in gold purification.
    • Food and Beverage: Helps in decolorization and purification processes in sugar, wine, and juice production.

    About Coconut Husk-Derived Activated Carbon

    • Coconut husk-derived activated carbon is a sustainable and efficient green solution for high-performance supercapacitors.
    • This material is readily available, low-cost, and eco-friendly.
    • It was produced by Microwave-Assisted Method designed at the Centralised Common Instrumentation Facility (CCIF) at the college.

    Importance of Supercapacitors

    • Energy Storage: Supercapacitors have significantly higher capacitance and energy storage capacity compared to conventional capacitors.
    • Search for Ideal Material: Finding the ideal supercapacitor electrode material has been a significant challenge in sustainable energy storage solutions.

    Research Findings:

    • Efficiency: Prototype supercapacitors made from coconut husk-derived activated carbon are four times more efficient than existing supercapacitors.
    • Cost-Effective and Efficient: Activated carbon produced using this technology is inexpensive and exhibits exceptional supercapacitor capability.