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GS Paper: GS3

  • Advancing Electrolyte Engineering for Durable and Affordable Aqueous Batteries

    Why in the news?

    Scientists at the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali, under the Department of Science and Technology (DST), have developed a novel electrolyte additive (BDIM) that significantly improves the performance and lifespan of Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries (AZIBs).

    Key Highlights

    • AZIBs are emerging as safer, cheaper, and more sustainable alternatives to lithium-ion batteries.
    • Major challenges:
      • Zinc dendrite formation
      • Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER)
      • Corrosion of zinc anode
      • Poor cycling stability
    • Researchers developed BDIM (1,3-bis(1,3-dicarboxypropyl)-1H-imidazole-3-ium chloride) as an electrolyte additive.
    • BDIM selectively adsorbs on the zinc surface and occupies the Inner Helmholtz Plane (IHP).
    • It displaces water molecules, thereby:
      • Suppressing hydrogen evolution
      • Reducing corrosion
      • Preventing dendrite growth
      • Enhancing battery life and safety
    • Researchers used: Ultramicroelectrode (UME) and Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry (FSCV)
      to study zinc deposition mechanisms.

    Significance

    • Extends battery lifespan without costly material redesign.
    • Improves safety and reliability of rechargeable batteries.
    • Supports large-scale renewable energy and grid-storage applications.
    • Can reduce maintenance costs of energy-storage infrastructure.

    Prelims Facts

    • AZIB Electrolyte: Water-based, making it non-flammable and safer than lithium-ion batteries.
    • Inner Helmholtz Plane (IHP): Region near the electrode surface where electrochemical reactions occur.
    • Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER): Undesirable side reaction that reduces battery efficiency.

  • Qadian-Beas Railway Line Project Revived

    Why in the news?

    The Government of India has revived the Qadian-Beas New Railway Line Project in Punjab after nearly a century. The project was originally approved during 1928-29 by the North-Western Railway but remained incomplete.

    Key Highlights

    • Length: 39.68 km broad-gauge railway line.
    • Cost: Approximately ₹1,400 crore.
    • Implementing Agency: Northern Railway.
    • Route: Qadian (Gurdaspur) – Dhapai – Ghuman – Butala – Sathiala – Beas (Amritsar).
    • Revived under the Socially Desirable Rail Connectivity Programme.

    Infrastructure Features

    • 2 crossing stations (Ghuman and Butala).
    • 11 major bridges and 121 minor bridges.
    • 54 Road Under Bridges (RUBs).
    • Modern signalling and telecommunication systems.
    • Deployment of Kavach, India’s indigenous train collision avoidance system.

    Significance

    • Connectivity: Brings several areas of Punjab’s Majha region onto the railway network. Improves mobility and accessibility for residents.
    • Strategic Importance: Provides an alternative corridor to the Amritsar-Pathankot railway section during emergencies. Enhances resilience of railway operations in northern India.
    • Economic Benefits
      • Better market access for farmers.
      • Faster transportation of agricultural produce.
      • Boost to trade, commerce, and small-scale industries.
      • Employment generation during construction and operation.
    • Tourism: Improves access to major religious destinations including Qadian, Dera Baba Jaimal Singh, Sri Darbar Sahib, Dera Baba Nanak, and Gurdwara Achal Sahib

  • Indigenous Air Cushion Vehicle (ACV) Inducted into Indian Coast Guard

    Why in News?

    The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) inducted the first of six indigenously built Air Cushion Vehicles (ACVs), or hovercraft, at Goa on 18 June 2026. The vessels are being constructed by Chowgule & Company Private Limited under a Ministry of Defence contract.

    Key Highlights

    • First ACV inducted into ICG service in Goa.
    • Part of a contract for six indigenous hovercraft.
    • Contract signed between the Ministry of Defence and Chowgule & Company Pvt. Ltd. on 24 October 2024.
    • Supports the vision of Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
    • Enhances India’s indigenous maritime manufacturing capability.

    What is an Air Cushion Vehicle (ACV)?

    • A hovercraft that travels on a cushion of pressurised air.
    • Can operate over Water, Mudflats, Marshes, Sandbanks, Shallow and coastal areas
    • Combines features of both marine vessels and aircraft.

  • The RBI and its growing fiscal role 

    Why in the News?

    The RBI approved a record surplus transfer of ₹2.87 lakh crore to the Union government for FY26. The transfer follows a sharp expansion in the RBI’s balance sheet and rising earnings from reserve management, foreign assets and market operations, triggering debate over the RBI’s evolving place within India’s fiscal architecture.

    Why is the RBI no longer functioning only as a monetary authority?

    1. Traditional Role: The RBI’s primary mandate is monetary stability, financial stability and currency management.
    2. Record Fiscal Contribution: The RBI transferred a record ₹2.87 lakh crore to the Union government in FY26, demonstrating its growing importance as a source of fiscal resources.
    3. Expanding Financial Footprint: The RBI’s balance sheet expanded by 20.6% to ₹91.97 lakh crore by March 2026, increasing the scale at which its operations influence fiscal outcomes.
    4. Rising Operational Income: Gross income rose by 26%, reflecting the growing revenue-generating capacity of RBI operations.
    5. Magnitude of Fiscal Impact: The transfer exceeds the annual budgets of several Indian States, indicating the substantial fiscal significance of RBI earnings.
    6. Institutional Shift: Reserve management, foreign asset holdings and market operations now generate fiscal resources alongside monetary outcomes, giving the RBI a role that extends beyond traditional central banking.

    How has the RBI’s management of reserves become a source of fiscal capacity?

    1. Reserve Management: RBI actively manages foreign exchange reserves, gold holdings and securities portfolios as part of its monetary mandate.
    2. Gold Reserve Expansion: RBI acquired almost $12 billion worth of gold, increasing the scale of reserve assets under its management.
    3. Foreign Asset Expansion: RBI purchased roughly $75 billion in foreign currency assets, expanding income-generating reserve holdings.
    4. Income-Generating Operations: Exchange-rate intervention, foreign asset holdings and securities investments generate significant financial returns.
    5. Fiscal Contribution: Returns from reserve management increasingly contribute to the RBI surplus transferred to the Union government.
    6. Institutional Consequence: Activities undertaken for monetary and financial stability now generate substantial fiscal resources, linking reserve management to government finances.

    Can a central bank remain institutionally independent when it becomes fiscally important?

    1. Institutional Distance: Central bank credibility depends on insulation from day-to-day fiscal compulsions.
    2. Fiscal Dependence: Large surplus transfers strengthen government finances without taxation or borrowing.
    3. Monetary-Fiscal Interdependence: Decisions affecting the RBI’s balance sheet increasingly affect fiscal outcomes. The growing fiscal role of central banks blurs the traditional boundary between monetary policy and fiscal policy.
    4. Changing Incentives: Fiscal significance increases political interest in central-bank earnings.
    5. Global Experience: Quantitative easing demonstrated how central-bank balance sheets can become instruments of fiscal support.
    6. Core Tension: The RBI remains a monetary authority while simultaneously becoming an important fiscal actor.

    Why does the RBI’s growing fiscal role create a federalism challenge?

    1. Union Ownership: RBI profits accrue entirely to the Union government.
    2. Outside Fiscal Devolution: RBI transfers are not included in the divisible pool shared through Finance Commission awards.
    3. No Automatic State Share: States receive no direct claim on RBI-generated revenues.
    4. Scale of Asymmetry: The ₹2.87 lakh crore transfer exceeds the annual budgets of several States, highlighting the magnitude of resources accruing exclusively to the Centre.
    5. State Fiscal Constraints: States retain major expenditure responsibilities and face borrowing restrictions under Article 293, limiting their ability to offset revenue asymmetries.
    6. Fiscal Centralisation: Large public resources generated through monetary institutions strengthen the Centre’s fiscal position.
    7. Federal Blind Spot: RBI dividend transfers illustrate a wider pattern in which cesses, surcharges and borrowing restrictions increasingly concentrate fiscal resources at the Union level.

    Conclusion

    The RBI’s record surplus transfer reflects a deeper institutional transformation rather than a one-time financial event. The central bank has evolved from being primarily a guardian of monetary stability into an increasingly important source of fiscal capacity for the Union government. The unresolved challenge is preserving central bank independence and strengthening fiscal federalism as monetary institutions become more deeply intertwined with public finance.

  • World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought 2026

    Why in the news?

    The World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought (17 June) was celebrated across 813 project areas under the WDC–PMKSY 2.0 (Watershed Development Component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana 2.0).

    WDC–PMKSY 2.0

    • Implemented by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD).
    • Focuses on:
      • Soil and water conservation.
      • Restoration of degraded lands.
      • Enhancing resilience of rainfed agriculture.
      • Sustainable watershed development.

    Major Interventions

    • Check dams, Percolation tanks, Farm ponds, Water harvesting and groundwater recharge structures

    Key Outcomes

    • Improved water availability in rainfed areas.
    • Enables second and third crop cultivation.
    • Enhances farmers’ income and livelihood security.
    • Strengthens drought resilience and climate adaptation.

    Activities Conducted

    • Bhoomi Poojan of 1,444 new watershed development works.
    • Lokarpan (Inauguration) of 8,341 completed watershed assets.
    • Plantation of 51,299 saplings under “Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam” campaign.
    • Public pledge: “For a Developed India, Let Us Build a Drought-Free India.”

    Significance

    • Promotes community-led land and water conservation.
    • Supports land restoration, water security, and climate resilience.
    • Contributes to sustainable rural development and combating desertification.

    [2016] What is/are the importance/importances of the ‘United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’?

    1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.

    2. It has a special focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates allocation of major portions of financial resources to these regions.

    3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging participation of local people in combating desertification.

    A 1 only

    B 2 and 3 only

    C 1 and 3 only

    D 1, 2 and 3

  • Green Hydrogen Certification Portal of India (GHCI) & National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)

    Why in the news?

    The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) launched the Green Hydrogen Certification Portal of India (GHCI) to ensure transparent certification and regulatory compliance for green hydrogen production.

    GHCI

    • Developed by MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy).
    • Certifies green hydrogen under the Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India (GHCI Scheme).
    • Enhances transparency, traceability, and market credibility.

    National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)

    • Launched in 2023.
    • Outlay: ₹19,744 crore.

    Targets by 2030

    • 5 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) of green hydrogen production.
    • 125 Gigawatt (GW) dedicated renewable energy capacity.
    • ₹8 lakh crore investment.
    • 6 lakh jobs.
    • Reduction of 50 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions annually.

    Key Progress

    • 6 States have dedicated Green Hydrogen Policies; 7 States have integrated hydrogen into existing policies.
    • Incentives awarded to 15 companies for 3,000 MW (Megawatt) per year electrolyser manufacturing capacity.
    • Under SIGHT (Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition), incentives approved for 8.62 lakh Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MTPA) of green hydrogen production.
    • Contracts awarded for 30,000 MTPA green hydrogen supply to refineries.
    • Agreements signed for 6.7 lakh MTPA of Green Ammonia supply to 11 fertilizer plants.
    • ₹84 crore sanctioned for hydrogen injection pilot projects in the steel sector.
    • ₹208 crore allocated for 37 hydrogen-powered vehicles and 9 refuelling stations.
    • ₹113 crore allocated for Research and Development (R&D) projects.
    • ₹100 crore startup fund; first 9 startups approved with ₹22 crore support.

    Green Hydrogen

    • Hydrogen produced through electrolysis using renewable energy.
    • A zero-carbon fuel for sectors such as steel, fertilizers, refineries, shipping, and heavy transport.

    [2023] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements:
    1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
    2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
    3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All three

    [D] None

  • Five solutions Indian cities need, to stop fighting for water week after week

    Why in the News?

    Major Indian cities such as Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad experienced severe water shortages in the summer of 2026. India’s urban water crises persist not because cities lack water sources, but because governance continues to prioritize creating new supplies over fixing leakages, regulating groundwater, managing demand, ensuring transparency, and reusing wastewater. The problem is not a knowledge deficit; it is an execution deficit.

    Why have seasonal water shortages evolved into a chronic urban governance crisis?

    1. Recurring Emergencies: Urban water emergencies have become a regular feature rather than an exceptional summer event
    2. Widespread Impact: Similar shortages were reported across Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad.
    3. Severe Scarcity: In parts of New Delhi, large families survived on a single 20-litre water can per day.
    4. Emergency Dependence: Delhi Jal Board deployed more than 1,000 tankers to manage shortages.
    5. Systemic Failure: Long queues, tanker dependence, anxiety and protests indicate structural weaknesses rather than temporary disruptions.
    6. Persistent Vulnerability: The same pattern repeats every year despite advance awareness of summer demand pressures.

    Why are cities becoming more water-insecure despite having access to multiple water sources?

    1. Multiple Sources: Cities obtain water from reservoirs, groundwater and interconnected supply systems.
    2. Groundwater Depletion: Urban populations extract groundwater faster than aquifers can naturally replenish.
    3. Local Buffer Erosion: Rivers, lakes and ponds that previously moderated water stress have deteriorated.
    4. Encroachment: Urban water bodies have been occupied and degraded by expanding settlements.
    5. Infrastructure Decay: Existing supply networks suffer from leakages and maintenance deficits.
    6. Demand Expansion: Rapid urbanisation has increased consumption beyond the capacity of existing systems.

    How does climate variability expose weaknesses that already exist in urban water systems?

    1. Dual Extremes: Cities increasingly experience floods and droughts within the same annual cycle.
    2. Reduced Absorptive Capacity: Encroached lakes and ponds cannot absorb excess rainfall effectively.
    3. Reduced Storage Capacity: Urban ecosystems cannot retain water for future use.
    4. Illustrative Example: Bengaluru experienced flooding after intense rains and tanker dependence a few weeks later.
    5. Infrastructure Stress: Climate shocks reveal weaknesses that already exist in water governance systems.
    6. Declining Resilience: Urban water systems have lost their capacity to absorb environmental fluctuations.

    Why does the crisis persist even when cities know what the problem is?

    1. Execution Deficit: Policymakers understand the causes of water stress but fail to implement corrective measures consistently.
    2. Maintenance Neglect: Authorities search for new sources instead of repairing existing systems.
    3. Regulatory Weakness: Groundwater extraction remains inadequately regulated and enforced.
    4. Institutional Fragmentation: Urban planning, water supply and wastewater management operate in separate administrative silos.
    5. Policy Bias: Infrastructure expansion receives greater attention than system efficiency.
    6. Short-Term Responses: Crisis management frequently substitutes for long-term planning.

    How can Indian cities shift from crisis-driven water management to long-term urban water security?

    SolutionKey Measures SuggestedProblem Addressed
    Transparent Emergency PlanningPrepare city-level water emergency plans; identify vulnerable areas; publicly disclose supply schedules, duration of shortages and distribution plans; provide regular updates.Panic, uncertainty, poor crisis management and lack of public trust.
    Recover Water Already AvailableDetect and repair leakages; conduct ward-level audits; reduce Non-Revenue Water (NRW); set targets for loss reduction.Massive distribution losses; article notes nearly 30% of water is lost before reaching consumers.
    Demand Management and ConservationConduct water audits in campuses and commercial complexes; repair internal leaks; restrict non-essential consumption during peak months; promote community-led conservation.Rising urban demand, wastage and unsustainable consumption patterns.
    Equity-Centred Emergency ResponseRegulate tanker supply and pricing; ensure minimum water access for vulnerable groups; provide temporary treatment support; spread awareness on safe storage and usage.Unequal access, exploitation during shortages and disproportionate burden on low-income households.
    Wastewater Reuse and Sewerage ReformUpgrade sewage treatment plants; improve aeration, de-weeding and desludging; reduce sewer leakages; recycle treated wastewater; support groundwater recharge.Water pollution, untreated wastewater discharge and underutilisation of recycled water.

    Is the real challenge water scarcity or the absence of transparent and accountable management?

    1. Information Deficit: Residents often receive little information regarding duration, frequency and extent of supply disruptions.
    2. Uncertainty Costs: Lack of communication increases panic, rumours and public distrust.
    3. Emergency Planning Gap: Cities lack clear and publicly available water emergency plans.
    4. Vulnerability Mapping: Authorities rarely identify the most affected neighbourhoods before crises emerge.
    5. Public Accountability: Regular public updates improve trust and strengthen compliance with conservation measures.
    6. Governance Failure: Scarcity becomes more disruptive when management systems fail to communicate and coordinate effectively.

    Why does recovering lost water offer greater returns than creating new water sources?

    1. Non-Revenue Water: Nearly 30% of water is lost before reaching consumers.
    2. Leakage Reduction: Repairing pipelines immediately increases available supply.
    3. Cost Efficiency: Water recovery is often cheaper than developing new infrastructure.
    4. Targeted Audits: Authorities can identify high-loss zones through local leak detection exercises.
    5. Virtual Source Creation: Saved water functions as a new source without requiring new extraction.
    6. Supply Reliability: Efficient distribution reduces dependence on emergency tanker operations.

    Why must urban water policy shift from supply augmentation to demand management?

    1. Large Consumers: Campuses and commercial complexes consume significant volumes of urban water.
    2. Water Audits: Internal audits can identify avoidable wastage.
    3. Basic Maintenance: Leak repairs generate substantial water savings.
    4. Consumption Norms: Cities should establish clear limits during peak-demand months.
    5. Community Participation: Resident welfare groups can promote conservation practices.
    6. Behavioural Change: Demand reduction lowers pressure on stressed water systems.
    7. Non-Essential Use Restrictions: Limiting discretionary consumption preserves supplies during emergencies.

    Why does equitable crisis management matter as much as water availability?

    1. Distributional Justice: Water shortages disproportionately affect low-income households.
    2. Tanker Regulation: Authorities must regulate tanker pricing and distribution.
    3. Basic Water Security: Emergency systems should guarantee minimum water access.
    4. Temporary Treatment Support: Areas facing contamination require interim treatment facilities.
    5. Safe Storage Communication: Public guidance reduces health risks during shortages.
    6. Equity Imperative: Urban water security depends on access as much as availability.

    Why is wastewater reuse the missing link in urban water security?

    1. Resource Recovery: Treated wastewater can augment urban water supplies.
    2. Plant Optimisation: Existing treatment plants require improved operational efficiency.
    3. Aeration Improvement: Better aeration increases treatment effectiveness.
    4. De-Weeding: Removal of excess vegetation improves plant performance.
    5. Desludging: Regular desludging enhances treatment capacity.
    6. Pollution Reduction: Improved treatment lowers contamination levels.
    7. Groundwater Recharge: Cleaner wastewater supports aquifer replenishment.
    8. Sewerage Integrity: Leak detection prevents contamination and water quality deterioration.

    Conclusion

    India’s urban water crisis reflects a governance failure more than a resource shortage. Cities already possess the technical knowledge required to address leakages, groundwater depletion, excessive demand and wastewater mismanagement. Water security requires a shift from emergency tanker-driven responses to transparent planning, institutional accountability and efficient management of existing resources.

    UPSC Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Why is the world today confronted with a crisis of availability of and access to freshwater resources?

    Linkage: PYQ examines the structural causes behind freshwater scarcity and unequal access, which lie at the core of India’s recurring urban water crises. The article argues that urban water shortages stem not merely from inadequate water availability but from multiple reasons.

  • GRAPES-3: A Cosmic-Ray Tracker

    Why in the news?

    Researchers from India and Japan used the Gamma Ray Astronomy PeV EnergieS phase-3 (GRAPES-3) telescope to analyse 22 years of muon data, enabling real-time monitoring of changes in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.

    What is GRAPES-3?

    • GRAPES-3 (Gamma Ray Astronomy PeV EnergieS phase-3) is a muon telescope and cosmic-ray observatory located at Ooty, Tamil Nadu.
    • It detects muons, rather than visible light.
    • It is designed to study Cosmic rays, Solar magnetic fields, Space weather, and Atmospheric processes.

    What are Muons?

    • Muons are high-energy subatomic particles produced when cosmic rays collide with atoms in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
    • They can penetrate deep into the Earth’s surface due to their high energy.

    How does GRAPES-3 Work?

    • Comprises 16 detector modules.
    • Each module contains 232 proportional counters filled with argon-methane gas and a tungsten wire.
    • Passing muons generate electrical pulses, recorded as “hits.”
    • Four layers of detectors arranged at right angles help determine the trajectory and angle of incoming muons.
    • Reinforced concrete layers filter out low-energy particles, allowing only high-energy muons to be detected.

    Significance

    • Enables real-time monitoring of upper atmospheric temperature changes.
    • Helps study the Sun’s magnetic field and space weather.
    • Improves understanding of cosmic-ray interactions with Earth’s atmosphere.
    • Contributes to research in astroparticle physics and atmospheric science.

    Value Addition

    • Cosmic Rays: High-energy charged particles originating from outer space.
    • Space Weather: Variations in the space environment caused by solar activity that can affect satellites, communication systems, and power grids.

    [2017] The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of

    [A] Observation and understanding of the Universe

    [B] Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

    [C] Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

    [D] Origin and evolution of living organisms on the earth

  • Drone revolution and modern warfare

    Why in the News?

    The Ukraine War, the Israel-Hezbollah conflict, and broader West Asian confrontations demonstrate that mass-produced unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have become central to modern warfare. For the first time, relatively inexpensive, commercially derived drones have challenged the dominance of traditional military platforms such as tanks, artillery, combat aircraft, and precision-guided missile systems.

    Why has the traditional model of military superiority been challenged?

    1. Conventional Military Paradigm: Battlefield superiority historically depended on combat aircraft, tanks, artillery, warships, air-defence systems, precision-guided missiles, and advanced intelligence networks.
    2. Resource Advantage: Large military budgets enabled technologically advanced states to dominate battlefields.
    3. Asymmetric Warfare: Smaller states and non-state actors relied on guerrilla tactics, ambushes, and unconventional warfare to offset conventional disadvantages.
    4. Paradigm Shift: Commercially derived drones have disrupted this model by providing low-cost precision strike capabilities at scale.
    5. Persistent Battlespace: Modern battlefields no longer provide safe rear areas as drones can detect, track, and engage targets across the operational depth.

    How has the Ukraine War become the laboratory of industrial-scale drone warfare?

    1. Rapid Adaptation: Ukraine converted commercially available drones originally designed for photography, mapping, and surveillance into military platforms.
    2. Transformation of Role: Drones evolved from intelligence-gathering tools into active strike systems.
    3. Full Integration: By 2024, drones became integrated across almost every layer of Ukrainian combat operations.
    4. Operational Functions: Drones support battlefield surveillance, frontline targeting, artillery correction, logistics interdiction, and deep-strike missions.
    5. Replication Effect: Ukraine’s drone warfare model has subsequently influenced conflicts across West Asia.
    6. Historic First: Ukraine represents the world’s first industrial-scale, drone-intensive conflict.

    How did FPV drones revolutionise battlefield operations?

    First-Person View (FPV) drones allow you to fly while wearing specialized video goggles that stream a live, real-time feed directly from the drone’s onboard camera. Unlike standard camera drones that fly via GPS stabilization, FPV flying offers total acrobatic freedom and an immersive, cockpit-like experience.

    1. FPV (First Person View) Technology: Uses onboard cameras transmitting live video feeds to operators through virtual-reality-style goggles.
    2. Operational Advantage: Ensures precision, manoeuvrability, responsiveness, and low operational costs.
    3. Combat Variants: Includes strike drones, bombers, interceptors, and long-range attack systems.
    4. Cost Asymmetry: Systems costing only a few hundred dollars can destroy armoured vehicles and equipment worth millions.
    5. Expanded Combat Envelope: Thermal-imaging and night-vision variants enable round-the-clock operations.
    • Examples
      • Vampire Hexacopter (“Baba Yaga”): Heavy-lift drone used for combat missions.
      • FPV Kamikaze Drones: Quadcopters carrying explosive payloads such as: Rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) warheads. and Purpose-built munitions.

        How has Ukraine developed a layered drone ecosystem?

        1. Loitering Munitions
          1. RAM II: Short-range precision loitering munition used alongside reconnaissance drones.
          2. UJ-31 Zozulya: Aerially deployed “parasite drone” carried by the UJ-22 Airborne UAV to extend operational reach.
        2. Reconnaissance Systems
          1. Shark Drone: Provides reconnaissance support.
          2. PD-2: Supports surveillance and targeting missions.
        3. Bomber Drones
          1. DJI Mavic 3 Adaptations: Converted from civilian applications to military bomber roles.
          2. DJI Matrice 300 RTK Adaptations: Modified to carry Grenades, Anti-tank mines and Other munitions.
          3. Operational Benefit: Survive missions and conduct multiple sorties unlike kamikaze drones.
        4. Deep Strike Systems
          1. Pegasus FPV Strike Drone: Supports tactical strike operations.
          2. One-Way Attack Drones: Conduct deep strikes against:
            1. Logistics hubs.
            2. Airbases.
            3. Critical infrastructure.
        5. Parasite Drone Concept: UJ-31 Zozulya is carried by the UJ-22 Airborne UAV and released mid-air, extending operational range and penetration capability.

        Why are fibre-optic drones considered a major battlefield innovation?

        A fiber-optic drone is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that tethers to a ground controller via a thin, hair-like optical fiber cable. Deployed primarily as first-person view (FPV) loitering munitions or reconnaissance craft, they transmit control signals and high-bandwidth video through light, rendering them completely immune to electronic warfare (EW) jamming.

        1. Electronic Warfare Resistance: Conventional drones rely on radio-frequency links vulnerable to jamming.
        2. Fibre-Optic Guidance: Uses physical fibre-optic cables spooled during flight.
        3. Reduced Vulnerability: Ensures mission continuity despite electronic warfare interference.
        4. Operational Advantage: Enables operations in heavily contested electromagnetic environments.
        5. Strategic Significance: Restores drone effectiveness where conventional systems would fail.

        How does Hezbollah employ drones in its military strategy?

        Iranian Supply Chain: Relies heavily on Iranian-origin drone platforms.

        Key Platforms

        1. Ababil Series: Supports ISR and strike missions.
        2. Mohajer Series: Provides medium-range reconnaissance capabilities.
        3. Shahed Series: Performs surveillance and attack functions.

        Specific Systems

        1. Mohajer-4: Provides ISR coverage.
        2. Shahed-129: Supports medium- to long-range ISR missions.
        3. Shahed-136: Functions as a dedicated one-way strike loitering munition.

        Technological Adaptation

        1. Fibre-Optic FPV Drones: Adopted to overcome Israeli electronic warfare measures.

        How has Israel responded to the drone challenge?

        1. Layered Counter-Drone Architecture
          1. Electronic Warfare Systems: Supports drone detection and disruption.
          2. Specialised Radar Arrays: Improves low-altitude drone tracking.
        2. Emerging Technologies/AI-Enabled Iron Drone Raider:
          1. Neutralises drones through kinetic interception.
          2. Uses net capture mechanisms.
          3. Employs direct collision tactics.
          4. Reduces reliance on expensive missile interceptors.
        3. Integrated UAV Force Structure
          1. Heron Systems: Provide long-endurance ISR coverage.
          2. Armed Drones: Support precision strike missions.
          3. Loitering Munitions: Enable rapid reconnaissance-strike integration.

        How does Iran represent a distinct model of drone warfare?

        1. Strategic Integration: Uses drones as instruments of national deterrence and power projection, not merely battlefield weapons.
        2. Proxy Warfare Network: Supplies drone capabilities to allies and proxy groups across Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen.
        3. IRGC-Led Doctrine: Integrates drone development and deployment into the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps’ military strategy.
        4. Indigenous Production: Manufactures Shahed-series drones domestically, ensuring scalability and strategic autonomy.
        5. Low-Cost Regional Influence: Projects military power and threatens adversary assets across West Asia without maintaining expensive conventional air forces.

        Why is the drone revolution fundamentally an economic revolution?

        1. Cost Efficiency: Cheap unmanned systems replace expensive military platforms.
        2. Production Scale: Industrial manufacturing capacity increasingly determines battlefield success.
        3. Attrition Advantage: Large-scale drone production offsets losses.
        4. Battlefield Economics: Few hundred-dollar drones can destroy million-dollar platforms.
        5. Industrial Endurance: Success depends on continuous production and adaptation.
        6. Technological Adaptability: Drone systems are rapidly reconfigured for evolving battlefield requirements.

        Conclusion

        Modern warfare is transitioning from a platform-centric model to a drone-centric ecosystem characterised by low-cost precision, continuous reconnaissance, and rapid innovation. As drones become central to deterrence, power projection, and battlefield operations, military advantage will increasingly depend on the ability to build, deploy, adapt, and neutralise unmanned systems at scale.

        Value Addition

        Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)

        1. Integration of emerging technologies into warfare.
        2. Alters doctrine, force structure, and operational concepts.
        3. Comparable to:
          1. Gunpowder Revolution.
          2. Mechanised Warfare.
          3. Nuclear Revolution.
          4. Information Warfare.

        Emerging Technologies in Warfare

        Artificial Intelligence

        1. Autonomous targeting.
        2. Swarm coordination.
        3. Decision support systems.

        Electronic Warfare

        1. Jamming.
        2. Spoofing.
        3. Signal disruption.

        Autonomous Systems

        1. Loitering munitions.
        2. Unmanned combat aerial vehicles.

        Network-Centric Warfare

        1. Real-time ISR integration.
        2. Sensor-to-shooter connectivity.

        PYQ Relevance

        [UPSC 2023] The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) by our adversaries across the borders to ferry arms/ammunitions, drugs, etc., is a serious threat to internal security. Comment on the measures being taken to tackle this threat.

        Linkage: The PYQ examines the security implications of the growing use of drone technology. The article discusses how drones have become central to modern warfare, highlighting the need for advanced counter-drone capabilities to address emerging military and internal security threats.

      1. Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) Monthly Bulletin, May 2026

        Why in the news?

        The National Statistical Office (NSO) released the PLFS Monthly Bulletin for May 2026, showing a marginal softening in labour market conditions, while urban unemployment fell to its lowest level in one year.

        Key Highlights (15 years and above, Current Weekly Status)

        Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)

        • Overall LFPR: 54.4%
          • April 2026: 55.0%
          • May 2025: 54.8%
        • Rural LFPR: 56.6%
        • Urban LFPR: 49.8%

        Female LFPR

        • Overall female LFPR: 32.8%
        • Rural female LFPR: 36.7%
        • Urban female LFPR: 24.8%
        • Urban female participation remained broadly stable compared to the previous month.

        Worker Population Ratio (WPR)

        • Overall WPR: 51.4%
          • April 2026: 52.2%
          • May 2025: 51.7%
        • Rural WPR: 53.8%
        • Urban WPR: 46.6%
        • Urban WPR remained largely unchanged.

        Unemployment Rate (UR)

        • Overall UR: 5.5%
        • Rural UR: 5.1%
        • Urban UR: 6.4%
          • April 2026: 6.6%
          • May 2025: 6.9%
        • Urban unemployment reached its lowest level since May 2025.

        Urban Unemployment

        • Female urban UR: 8.2%
        • Male urban UR: 5.9% (unchanged from April 2026).

        About PLFS

        • Conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
        • It is India’s primary survey on employment and unemployment.
        • Since January 2025, the methodology has been modified to provide monthly and quarterly estimates.

        [2020] With reference to the Indian economy after the 1991 economic liberalization, consider the following statements:

        1.Worker productivity (Rs. per worker at 2004 — 05 prices) increased in urban areas while it decreased in rural areas.
        2.The percentage share of rural areas in the workforce steadily increased.
        3.In rural areas, the growth in non-farm economy increased.
        4.The growth rate in rural employment decreased.

        Which of the statements given above is/are Correct?
        a) 1 and 2 only
        b) 3 and 4 only
        c) 3 only
        d) 1, 2 and 4 only