Mains GS3: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.
Why in the News?
A recent research revealed that the Zebrafish (a popular aquarium fish) can regenerate damaged heart muscle within 60 days, a capability absent in humans. The Hmga1 protein plays a key role in this process, offering potential insights for heart repair in mammals.
Discovery of Hmga1’s Role in Zebrafish Heart Regeneration:
In zebrafish, the Hmga1 protein plays a pivotal role in activating dormant genes necessary for regeneration.
It removes molecular “roadblocks” on chromatin (DNA-packaging structures), shifting genes from an inactive state to active regeneration mode.
The Hmga1 gene, active during embryonic development in mice and humans, becomes inactive after birth.
In zebrafish, however, the gene remains active during heart regeneration, enabling the repair process.
About Zebrafish
Zebrafish are small freshwater fish measuring 2-3 cm in length.
It is named for the horizontal blue stripes running along their bodies.
It is native to South Asia’s Indo-Gangetic plains and is commonly found in paddy fields, stagnant water, and streams.
It is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN.
Features of Zebrafish
Zebrafishes are known for their ability to regenerate almost all major organs, including the heart, brain, eyes, and spinal cord.
This unique trait makes them an important model in developmental biology and disease research.
They share approximately 70% of their genes with humans.
Over 80% of human disease-related genes have counterparts in zebrafish, making them valuable for studying genetic disorders.
They produce hundreds of embryos in a single clutch, enabling large-scale studies.
They are now preferred over rodent (guinea pigs) models for certain vertebrate development studies.
Widely used for regenerative biology and drug discovery due to their cost-effectiveness and rapid breeding.
Mains GS3: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.
Why in the News?
For the first time in India, Chhattisgarh has introduced an innovative framework that integrates the ecosystem services of its forests into the calculation of Green Gross Domestic Product (Green GDP). This initiative highlights the critical role forests play in supporting both environmental sustainability and economic growth.
Highlights of the Chhattisgarh’sPlan
Forest contributions like carbon absorption, climate regulation, and biodiversity preservation will now be formally quantified and included in the state’s economic planning.
The initiative ensures forests are valued not just for their resources but for their broader ecological services.
With 44% of its land under forest cover, Chhattisgarh’s natural resources are vital for the livelihoods of millions and play a significant role in mitigating climate change.
The initiative aligns with ‘Developed India 2047’ vision, focusing on long-term ecological and economic sustainability.
About Green GDP
Green GDP is an alternative metric for assessing economic growth that includes the environmental costs of economic activities.
It subtracts the value of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation from traditional GDP to provide a more accurate picture of economic well-being.
Introduced in the 1993United Nations Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting under the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) framework.
Key Features:
Aims to measure the sustainability of economic growth.
Focuses on valuing ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and water resources.
Provides insights into the trade-offs between economic growth and environmental conservation.
Calculation:
Green GDP = Traditional GDP – Costs of Environmental Degradation – Costs of Resource Depletion.
Challenges: Incomplete environmental data, reliance on subjective assumptions, difficulty in valuing ecosystem services, and the absence of a universal calculation framework, often oversimplifying nature’s intrinsic worth.
Government Initiatives for Green GDP Accounting
Green National Account Framework: It integrates environmental considerations into national accounting systems. It captures the value of natural resources, costs of pollution, and benefits of ecosystem services like clean air and water.
System of Environmental-Economic Accounting, 2012 (SEEA): It was adopted by India under UN guidelines to create databases for natural capital accounting and informed policymaking.
RBI Estimates: Green GDP for 2019 was ₹167 trillion, reflecting a 10% adjustment from traditional GDP. It is supported by organizations like TERI and Indian Statistical Institute to refine valuation methodologies.
Mains GS3: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.
Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has introduced amendments to the rules governing the selection of experts in the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).
Key Highlights of the Revised GEAC Rules:
Conflict of Interest Disclosure: Expert members must disclose any direct or indirect interests that may conflict with their duties. Conflicted members must recuse themselves from decision-making unless specifically requested by the committee.
Transparency Measures: All members are required to submit a detailed record of their professional affiliations from the past 10 years to ensure accountability and unbiased evaluations.
Participation Restrictions: Experts with conflicts of interest must report them before meetings and take steps to ensure that their affiliations do not affect GEAC decisions.
Enhanced Governance: The revised rules aim to strengthen the regulatory process for genetically modified organisms (GMOs), ensuring fair and impartial decision-making.
Supreme Court Compliance: The amendments align with the Supreme Court’s directive (2023) to address concerns of conflict of interest in GM crop approval processes, boosting public trust in GEAC’s role.
Improved Operational Integrity: These changes emphasize transparency, ensuring that scientific appraisals and policy decisions remain free from external influence.
What is Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)?
The GEAC is the apex regulatory body overseeing activities related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in India, particularly their release into the environment.
It is established under the Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export, and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules, 1989) framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Structural Mandate:
Operates under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
Composition:
Chairperson: Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC.
Co-Chairperson: Representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
Includes 24 members, representing key institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), and Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB).
Meets monthly for appraisals and discussions.
Powers and Functions of GEAC:
Powers:
Approves or denies proposals for environmental release of genetically engineered organisms (including GM crops).
Exercises the power to take punitive actions under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for violations.
Monitors large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production.
Functions:
Evaluates activities involving the environmental release of GMOs and their products, including experimental field trials.
Ensures compliance with safety protocols to minimize environmental risks.
Reviews applications for the import, export, manufacture, and storage of GM organisms and cells.
Makes recommendations based on a comprehensive assessment of environmental and health impacts.
Addresses concerns related to conflicts of interest and ensures impartiality in decision-making.
Engages with stakeholders, including farmers and environmentalists, to maintain transparency and address public concerns.
PYQ:
[2015] The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is constituted under the:
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
Q) ‘Simultaneous election to the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies will limit the amount of time and money spent in electioneering but it will reduce the government’s accountability to the people’ Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2024)
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on topics like ‘Election Commission of India’ (2022) and ‘Simultaneous Elections’ (2024).
The current political landscape in India faces significant challenges that threaten the foundational principles of federalism and democracy. Issues such as financial centralization, proposed electoral reforms, and the misuse of Constitutional provisions are central to this discourse
Today’s Editorial focuses on Electoral Reforms and the recent initiatives taken by the government. This content can be used for presenting the main answer while talking on ‘Centralization issues’ and ‘Federal challenges faced by Democratic Elections’.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The proposal for ‘One Nation and One Election’ have cited several administrative and fiscal efficiencies in the recent Parliamentary debates.
Key Takeaways from the Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill and the Union Territories Laws (Amendment) Bill.
Scope of Simultaneous Polls: It applies only to Parliament and state Assemblies, excluding municipal corporations. Municipal elections are excluded to avoid the need for ratification by at least half of the state legislatures, a more complex process.
The simultaneous polls may begin with the 2034 election cycle, assuming the 18th and 19th Lok Sabhas complete full five-year terms.
The Bills include provisions for situations where mid-term elections might be required at the state or central level.
The Bill proposes changes to three existing articles through Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill, 2024.
It amends Articles 83 (duration of Houses of Parliament), 172 (duration of state legislatures), and 327 (power of Parliament to make provisions with respect to elections to Legislatures).
A new provision (Article 82A, clauses 1-6) is introduced to enable simultaneous elections. This article pertains to delimitation and provisions are as follows:
Article 82A (1) the President can notify the appointed date for the changes after the first sitting of the Lok Sabha following a general election.
Article 82A (2): Assemblies elected after the appointed date but before the Lok Sabha’s term ends will have their terms curtailed to align with the Lok Sabha’s full five-year term.
Article 82A (3): The ECI is tasked with conducting general elections for the Lok Sabha and all Legislative Assemblies simultaneously.
Article 82A (4): Simultaneous elections are defined as “general elections held for constituting the House of the People and all the Legislative Assemblies together.”
Article 82A (5): The ECI may recommend postponing a particular Assembly election if it determines simultaneous elections are not feasible. The President can then issue an order for those elections to be conducted separately.
Article 82A (6): If an Assembly election is deferred, the term of that Assembly will still end with the full term of the Lok Sabha elected in the general election.
Proposed Amendments to Lok Sabha’s Term and Dissolution: Changes to Article 83 are supposed to be made wrt Lok Sabha’s term adjustment that prescribes a fixed five-year term for Lok Sabha unless dissolved earlier. If Lok Sabha is dissolved before completing its full term, the next Lok Sabha will only serve the unexpired period of the original term.
For Example, if Lok Sabha is dissolved after 3 years and 2 months, the subsequent Lok Sabha will serve the remaining 22 months.
Amendments to Article 327: Article 327 gives Parliament the authority to legislate on matters related to elections, including electoral rolls and delimitation of constituencies. The amendment proposes adding “conduct of simultaneous elections” to this list. This ensures Parliament can make provisions to align elections for both Houses of Parliament and State Legislatures.
Proposed Amendments for State Assemblies changes to Article 172: Similar to Lok Sabha, state Assemblies’ terms will also align with the “unexpired term” provision. If a state Assembly is dissolved before its full term, elections will be conducted for the remaining term of the dissolved Assembly.
The Union Territories Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024: The Union Territories are governed under a separate constitutional scheme that is different from states.
The purpose of the Bill is to align Union Territories with the framework for simultaneous elections and amend the Government of Union Territories Act, 1963 that adjusts to enable synchronized elections in Union Territories.
It also proposes to amend the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi Act, 1991 and Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 to include them within the simultaneous election framework.
What is the historical context of Simultaneous Elections in India?
Simultaneous elections in India have historical roots, having faced disruptions due to political and constitutional developments.
First Elections (1951-52): The ECI held simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies. This practice persisted through three subsequent general elections in 1957, 1962, and 1967.
Disruption of the Cycle: The imposition of President’s Rule under Article 356 marked a significant shift in Union-State relations, undermining state autonomy. This was first applied in Kerala in 1959.
Initially Article 356 was deemed as a “dead letter” by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, eventually, became a tool for political expediency, leading to the dismissal of elected state governments from 1950 to 1994.
It has been invoked over 130 times since Independence, distorting its intended purpose and contributing to political instability.
Judicial Intervention: The S.R. Bommai case aimed to restore federal rights and limit arbitrary actions by Governors, yet misuse persists. This is where the proposition put forward by the ONOE to align State election cycles with that of the Lok Sabha gets deeply problematic.
In fact, the proposal goes all the way to make amendments in the Constitution, particularly in Articles 83 and 172, which guarantee a five-year term for Parliament and State Assemblies.
What needs to be addressed?
Address the Misuse of Power and Federal Character: There is a need to tackle the misuse of Article 356 provision, which has implications for State autonomy. A unified electoral cycle could undermine State autonomy and dilute democratic governance.
Strengthening Anti-Defection Laws: Reforms are necessary to ensure political stability within State governments. The Constitution recognizes the diversity and plurality of India, making federalism essential. Ensuring that State governments remain stable is vital for effective governance.
Risks of Hasty Implementation: Implementing ONOE without necessary systemic reforms could threaten the Constitution’s basic structure and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities rather than resolve them.
For Example, historical instances, such as the malfunctioning fax machine incident in Jammu and Kashmir, highlight the fragility of institutional processes in India.
Way Forward: To achieve true democratic governance, it is imperative to commit to the principles of federalism and strengthen State governments as equal partners in India’s federal polity. ONOE should not be seen as a mere procedural change but as part of a broader commitment to reform and accountability within the constitutional framework.
Mains GS3: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.
Why in the News?
India recently shared a report about its efforts to fight climate change. The report includes details about how much greenhouse gases (GHG) the country produces and the steps it has taken to reduce these emissions as part of its global climate promises.
What is the Biennial Update Report (BUR)?
The Biennial Update Report (BUR) is a detailed report that developing countries, including India, submit to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This report outlines their efforts toward climate action, as mandated under the Paris Agreement.
BURs include an overview of national circumstances related to climate, socio-economic factors, and forestry, along with a comprehensive inventory of national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their sources. They also detail national action plans for emission mitigation and the support received for climate-related initiatives.
What are the BUR-4’s highlights and submissions on emissions inventory?
Total GHG Emissions: In 2020, India’s total GHG emissions were reported at 2,959 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. After accounting for land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), net emissions were 2,437 million tonnes, reflecting a 7.93% decrease from 2019 levels.
Reduction in Emissions Intensity: The report indicates that from 2005 to 2020, India’s emissions intensity of GDP decreased by 36%. This metric measures GHG emissions per unit of economic output, highlighting improved energy efficiency and a shift towards renewable energy sources.
Sectoral Contributions: The energy sector was the largest contributor to emissions, accounting for 75.66%, with electricity production alone responsible for 39% of total emissions. Agriculture contributed 13.72%, while industrial processes and waste management accounted for 8.06% and 2.56%, respectively.
What does BUR-4 say about the status of India’s climate commitments?
The BUR-4 outlines India’s commitment to its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, aiming for a 45% reduction in GDP emission intensity by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
The report notes that between 2005 and 2021, India created an additional carbon sink of approximately 2.29 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through enhanced forest and tree cover, contributing significantly to its climate goals.
What has the report said about India’s tech needs for climate-conscious growth? (Way forward)
Advanced Technologies for Low-Carbon Growth: The report emphasizes the necessity for adopting cutting-edge technologies across various sectors, including solar energy, wind energy, bioenergy, electric vehicles, and carbon capture and storage.
Capacity Building: Strengthening institutional frameworks and workforce capabilities is essential for effective implementation of climate policies and programs. This involves training personnel and developing skills necessary to manage and operate advanced technologies.
Financial and Technological Support: The BUR-4 identifies a significant gap in technology transfer from developed countries, which hampers India’s ability to implement necessary climate solutions. India calls for increased international cooperation to facilitate technology transfer, eliminate intellectual property barriers, and provide financial assistance to support its climate initiatives.
Integration of Technology in Key Sectors: The report highlights the importance of integrating advanced technologies into critical sectors that contribute to emissions, such as agriculture and energy.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)
Mains GS3: GS3-12.Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on industrial growth
Why in the News?
In 2024, India received a record $129.1 billion in remittances which marked the highest share for any country since 2000 as per the World Bank.
What are the Trends in Remittances flow?
Record Inflows: In 2024, India received an estimated $129.1 billion in remittances, marking the highest amount ever recorded for any country in a single year.
Global Share: India accounted for 14.3% of global remittances, the highest share since the turn of the millennium.
Growth Rate: The growth rate of remittances in 2024 was approximately 5.8%, a significant increase from 1.2% in 2023.
Top Recipients: Following India, Mexico and China received the largest remittances, with Mexico at $68 billion and China at $48 billion.
What are the Factors Responsible for High Remittances in India?
Large Diaspora: India has one of the largest diaspora populations globally, with over 18 million Indians living abroad, contributing significantly to remittance inflows.
Shift to High-Income Countries: There has been a trend of Indian migrants moving to high-income economies such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, where job opportunities are more abundant.
Diverse Skill Levels: Indian migrants include highly skilled professionals (in sectors like IT and healthcare) as well as semi-skilled and unskilled labourers, broadening the scope for remittance generation.
Recovery of Job Markets: The recovery of job markets in high-income countries post-pandemic has driven an increase in remittance flows as employment opportunities have improved.
What is the significance of high Remittances?
Economic Support for Households: Remittances serve as a crucial source of income for many families in India, supporting their daily needs and contributing to overall household welfare.
Impact on National Economy: In 2024, remittances constituted approximately 3.3% of India’s GDP, highlighting their role in bolstering the economy.
Comparison with Other Financial Flows: Remittances have outpaced other forms of external financial flows, such as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Official Development Assistance (ODA), indicating their importance for funding current account deficits and fiscal shortfalls in low- and middle-income countries.
Long-Term Growth Trends: Over the past decade, remittances to low-and-middle-income countries have increased by 57%, underscoring their growing significance as a stable source of income compared to declining FDI.
What are the negative impacts of brain drain?
Even though remittances are good for the country, they have negative signals for any country like brain drain.
Loss of Skilled Labor: Brain drain leads to a significant depletion of skilled professionals in the home country, resulting in shortages in critical sectors such as healthcare, education, and technology.
This loss hampers the country’s ability to innovate and develop, as there are fewer qualified individuals to drive progress and maintain essential services.
Economic Consequences: The exodus of skilled workers results in decreased tax revenues for the home country, which can limit public spending on infrastructure and social programs. This financial shortfall can stunt economic growth and development, exacerbating existing challenges within the economy.
Impeded National Development: Countries experiencing brain drain may face slower overall development due to the loss of human capital. This can create a cycle of underdevelopment, where the lack of skilled labour leads to reduced investment opportunities and further emigration, perpetuating the cycle of talent loss and economic stagnation.
Way forward:
Enhance Domestic Opportunities: Strengthen education, healthcare, and innovation ecosystems to retain skilled professionals by providing competitive salaries, career growth, and improved living standards.
Engage Diaspora Strategically: Leverage the Indian diaspora for knowledge transfer, investments, and partnerships, creating pathways for their contribution to national development while maintaining ties with homegrown talent.
The current state of cross-border insolvency laws is poor, with rules that cannot be enforced and slow progress in making necessary changes. This situation needs to be fixed.
How did the evolution of the cross-border insolvency framework in India?
Post-Independence Legal Framework: After Independence, India’s insolvency laws focused on domestic cases and did not address cross-border insolvency, leaving a significant gap in the legal framework.
Committee Recommendations and IBC Drafting: In the 2000s, committees like the Eradi, Mitra, and Irani Committees recommended adopting the UNCITRAL Model Law, leading to the drafting of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) in 2015, which initially focused on domestic insolvencies.
Incorporation of Cross-Border Provisions: Sections 234 and 235 were introduced in 2016 to facilitate cross-border insolvency, allowing reciprocal agreements and assistance from foreign courts, though their effectiveness was limited by the lack of implementation and reciprocal arrangements.
What are the key challenges in adopting a cross-border insolvency framework in India?
Outdated Framework: Current legal provisions, such as Sections 234 and 235 of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), remain non-notified and unenforceable, rendering them ineffective. Reliance on ad hoc protocols like in the Jet Airways case increases judicial burden, delays resolutions, and reduces asset value.
Jurisdictional Issues: Section 60(5) of the IBC limits the jurisdiction of civil courts over insolvency matters, leaving the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) as the sole authority. However, the NCLT lacks the power to recognize or enforce foreign judgments.
Lack of Reciprocal Arrangements: The absence of reciprocal agreements between India and other nations for cross-border insolvency resolution creates barriers to effective cooperation.
Inefficient Court Communication: Outdated communication methods between Indian and foreign courts hinder transparency and efficiency in handling cross-border insolvency matters.
Legislative Gaps: The delay in adopting structured frameworks, such as the UNCITRAL Model Law, highlights a critical regulatory gap in managing cross-border insolvencies.
How does India’s proposed legislation align with international standards, such as the UNCITRAL Model Law?
India’s proposed amendments to the IBC aim to incorporate elements of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency, which provides a structured framework for international cooperation and coordination in insolvency matters.
By adopting this model, India seeks to enhance its legal framework to better manage cross-border insolvencies and align with global best practices.
The recommendations from various expert committees, including the Insolvency Law Committee and the Parliamentary Standing Committee, emphasize the need for a comprehensive approach that includes provisions for recognizing foreign insolvency proceedings and facilitating smoother communication between jurisdictions.
What implications do these reforms have for foreign investment and economic growth in India?
Attracting Foreign Investment: A robust cross-border insolvency framework will enhance investor confidence by ensuring that their rights are protected in case of insolvency. This predictability is crucial for attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) into India, as investors seek assurance that their interests will be managed effectively across borders.
Facilitating Corporate Restructuring: Improved legal mechanisms for cross-border insolvency will enable Indian companies operating internationally to restructure more efficiently when faced with financial difficulties. This can lead to better asset recovery and preservation of business value, ultimately contributing to economic stability and growth.
Strengthening Economic Ties: By aligning its insolvency laws with international standards, India can foster stronger economic relationships with other nations, facilitating smoother trade and investment flows. This alignment is essential as India’s economic integration with global markets continues to grow.
Way forward:
Adopt UNCITRAL Model Law: Expedite the implementation of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency to establish a predictable, structured framework for managing international insolvency cases, fostering investor confidence and global integration.
Enhance NCLT Capacity: Strengthen the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) with expanded jurisdiction and training to effectively handle cross-border insolvency cases, alongside modernizing judicial coordination mechanisms through international guidelines like JIN.
Mains GS3: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.
Why in the News?
Scientists are deploying two advanced telescopes under the Mediterranean Sea as part of the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) project.
What is KM3NeT Project?
The KM3NeT is a European research initiative launched in 2012 and located in the Mediterranean Sea.
It uses advanced water Cherenkov detectors to study high-energy neutrinos and their origins, as well as fundamental neutrino properties.
Key Components:
ARCA (Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Sicily, Italy, at 3,400 meters depth, studying high-energy cosmic neutrinos.
ORCA (Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Toulon, France, at 2,475 meters depth, focusing on neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy.
It detects Cherenkov radiation, faint light produced when neutrinos interact with water molecules, using 6,210 optical modules.
Design:
Modular construction with plans to deploy 12,000 optical modules on 600 vertical strings, anchored to the seabed.
Connected via electro-optical networks to shore stations for power and data processing.
About Neutrinos
Neutrinos are subatomic particles, similar to electrons but without an electric charge.
Neutrinos are the 2nd most abundant particles in the universe after Photons.
Approximately a billion neutrinos pass through a cubic centimetre of space every second.
First detected in 1959, though their existence was theorized in 1931.
High-energy neutrinos, which originate from exotic astrophysical events like supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, or colliding stars, are of particular interest to scientists because:
Neutrinos can travel through dense cosmic environments, such as the dust-shrouded centre of the Milky Way, where visible light telescopes fail.
Neutrino detection depends on observing Cherenkov radiation — light flashes produced when neutrinos interact with water or ice molecules.
Darkness is essential for detecting the faint flashes of Cherenkov radiation.
Why study neutrinos?
Neutrinos provide insights into particle physics, including neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy, challenging the Standard Model.
Neutrinos pass through dense cosmic regions, offering access to areas invisible to traditional telescopes.
Studying neutrinos aids in tracing cosmic ray origins and understanding dark matter, unlocking mysteries of the universe.
PYQ:
[2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.
India has seen a 10x increase in banana exports over the past decade and now targets $1 billion in exports within the next five years. In the fiscal year 2022-23, India’s banana production was estimated at around 34.9 million metric tons.
Do you know?
Banana is the second most important fruit crop in India after Mango, contributing 33% to total fruit production.
India is the largest producer of bananas globally, contributing 26.5% to the world’s total banana production (FAO, 2021).
Andhra Pradesh is the leading state with 56.84 lakh tonnes (16.5% of national production) followed by Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Banana Cultivation in India
Bananas thrive in tropical and subtropicalclimates with temperatures between 15°C and 35°C and high humidity.
Common varieties: Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Grand Naine, Nendran, Rasthali, Poovan, Red Banana, Monthan, Safed Velchi, Lal Velchi, Ardhapuri, Karpuravalli, Elakki Bale, Basrai, Amrit Sagar, Champa, Chinia, Malbhog, Rajapuri, and Yelakki.
The crop requires well–drained, loamy soil with a pH of 6.5–7.5 and 1,800–2,000 mm of water annually, often supported by drip irrigation.
Fusarium Wilt is the most common disease affecting Bananas.
Seasons for Planting:
Maharashtra: Kharif (June–July) and Rabi (October–November).
Tamil Nadu: February–April and November–December.
Kerala: Rainfed crop (April–May) and irrigated crop (August–September).
PYQ:
[2011] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?
Mains GS2: GS2-18.Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
Why in the News?
The government of Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency on December 30, 2024, in response to escalating violence in the Caribbean nation.
About Trinidad and Tobago
Geography:
Located in the southern Caribbean, near Venezuela.
A dual-island nation consisting of Trinidad (4,768 sq. km) and Tobago (300 sq. km).
Total land area: 5,128 sq. km.
Climate: Tropical, with a dry season from January to May and a rainy season from June to December.
Population:
Approximately 1.5 million people.
Ethnic Composition: African (36.3%), Indian (35.4%), Mixed (22.8%), European, Chinese, and others.
Religions: Christianity (64%), Hinduism (18%), Islam (5%), and others.
Capital and Cities:
Capital: Port of Spain (Trinidad).
Other key cities: San Fernando, Chaguanas, and Scarborough (Tobago).
Political System:
Government Type: Parliamentary democracy under a constitutional republic.
Member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Gained independence from the UK on August 31, 1962, and became a republic in 1976.
Infrastructure:
Ports: Port of Spain, Point Lisas, and Scarborough are critical for trade.
Airports: Piarco International Airport (Trinidad) and A.N.R. Robinson International Airport (Tobago).
Culture and Heritage:
Known for the Carnival, one of the world’s largest pre-Lenten celebrations.
Birthplace of Calypso music, Soca, and the Steelpan (the only acoustic musical instrument invented in the 20th century).
Geo-Political Significance
T&T is a major exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemicals (methanol and ammonia), supplying markets in the U.S., Europe, and Latin America.
It is positioned at the crossroads of the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, serving as a gateway between North and South America.
It is a founding member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) advocating for regional economic integration, disaster response, and collective security.
It is a active member of the Commonwealth and the United Nations, pushing for climate change resilience and sustainable development initiatives.
