An outbreak of Marburg Virus (Bleeding Eyes) disease (MVD) has killed and infected many in Rwanda.
Location of Rwanda
AboutMarburg Virus:
Overview
• Causes Marburg Virus Disease (MVD), also known as Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever.
• Belongs to the filovirus family (same as Ebola).
• Discovered during outbreaks in 1967 in Marburg and Frankfurt, Germany.
• Case Fatality Rate ranges from 24% to 88%, depending on the strain and treatment effectiveness.How does it spread?• Animal to Human Transmission: Spread primarily from Rousettus bats, especially Egyptian fruit bats found in caves or mines.
• Human to Human Transmission: Spread through direct contact with blood and bodily fluids (saliva, vomit, feces, semen, and breast milk). Also transmitted indirectly through contaminated surfaces or clothing.
Symptoms and Treatment
• Early signs include fever, headache, muscle aches, chills, nausea, vomiting, and severe diarrhoea.
• Progresses to bleeding from various body parts, and death typically occurs 8-9 days after symptoms due to blood loss and organ failure.
• No approved vaccine or antiviral treatment. Supportive care includes hydration, symptom management, and blood transfusions. Experimental vaccines are being studied.
Why is it a Global Concern?
• High Fatality Rate: MVD’s case fatality rate (24%-88%) makes it one of the deadliest diseases.
• Spread: Ongoing outbreaks, primarily in Africa, but now affecting Rwanda and Tanzania.
• Public Health Threat: Human-to-human transmission and rapid spread pose significant challenges.
• Economic Impact: Outbreaks disrupt local economies, healthcare systems, and global trade due to travel restrictions and quarantine measures.
PYQ:
[2015] Among the following, which were frequently mentioned in the news for the outbreak of Ebola virus recently?
With global oil prices stabilizing and domestic fuel supply improving, the government has decided to scrap the windfall gains tax, ensuring more predictable taxation for the oil industry.
What isWindfall Tax?
A windfall tax is a levy imposed on companies experiencing unexpected profits due to external factors like market shifts or crises.
In India, it was introduced on July 1, 2022, targeting domestic crude oil production and exports of diesel, petrol, and ATF.
The tax aimed to capture windfall profits and ensure adequate domestic fuel supply amid rising global prices after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
The tax was imposed as Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED) on crude oil, and Additional Excise Duty (AED) or Road and Infrastructure Cess (RIC) on fuel exports.
Initially, the tax was Rs 23,250 per tonne on crude oil, Rs 13 per litre on diesel exports, and Rs 6 per litre on petrol and ATF exports.
The tax was regularly reviewed based on global oil price fluctuations.
A recent study published in the ‘Nature’ has shown that Extrachromosomal DNA(ecDNA)ispresent in approximately 50% of cancer types, playing a significant role in tumor evolution and genetic heterogeneity.
What is ecDNA?
Details
• ecDNA stands for extrachromosomal DNA, which is small, circular DNA found in the nucleus of cells, separate from regular chromosomes.
• Forms when DNA breaks off from chromosomes, often due to damage or errors in cell division.
• Can carry extra copies of oncogenes, which promote cancer growth.
• Initially thought to be unimportant, recent studies show it plays a major role in cancer.
How ecDNA Contributes to Cancer and Drug Resistance
• Helps Tumors Grow: ecDNA contains extra copies of oncogenes that help cancer cells grow faster and become more aggressive.
• Drug Resistance: The extra oncogenes make the cancer harder to treat with standard drugs by producing more harmful proteins.
• Faster Tumor Evolution: ecDNA allows cancer cells to evolve rapidly, making them more resistant to treatments like chemotherapy and enabling the tumor to grow even when drugs are used.
How ecDNA Challenges Genetics Laws?
Mendel’s Law says that genes on different chromosomes are inherited independently, meaning they are passed on randomly to the next generation.
ecDNA breaks this rule by grouping genes together and passing them on as a cluster during cell division.
This allows cancer cells to inherit beneficial genes more easily and helps the tumor grow faster.
Unlike regular chromosomes, which are distributed randomly during cell division, ecDNA is passed on together as a package.
This process gives cancer cells an advantage by making sure they inherit helpful genetic combinations that support cancer growth and resistance to drugs.
Q) The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains have focused on the ‘Challenges faced by Disables’ (in 2017), ‘Acts and Policies’ (2022).
Persons with disabilities (PwDs) in India encounter a multitude of challenges that hinder their social inclusion, economic participation, and overall quality of life. These challenges can be broadly categorized into social, educational, healthcare, employment, and infrastructural barriers.
Today’s editorial highlights the significant Policy implementation issues. This content can be used to present the key arguments regarding policy driven challenges
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
State Commissioners play a crucial role in protecting the rights and freedoms of persons with disabilities, but in many states, they have not fully met their responsibilities.
The Role of the State Commissioner
Quasi-Judicial Authority: The State Commissioners have quasi-judicial powers under Section 82 of the RPWD Act, allowing them to operate with the same authority as a civil court.
This includes the ability to conduct inquiries and make recommendations regarding violations of disability rights.
Monitoring and Oversight: They are responsible for monitoring the implementation of the RPWD Act and other related legislation, ensuring that policies and programs are compliant with the rights of persons with disabilities.
Suo Motu Powers: State Commissioners can intervene suo motu (on their own initiative) to identify discriminatory policies or practices that contravene the RPWD Act, thereby playing a critical role in safeguarding the rights of individuals with disabilities.
Engagement with Stakeholders: They are expected to interact consistently with persons with disabilities and their representative organizations to understand their needs and concerns, facilitating a more inclusive approach to policy-making.
Research Promotion: The State Commissioners also have a mandate to promote research in disability rights, which can inform better policies and practices for inclusion.
Capacity Building: They must build their capacity to perform their functions effectively, which includes training on legal frameworks, disability rights, and effective grievance redressal mechanisms.
Case study of Karnataka:
• Effective Implementation: Karnataka has been highlighted as a progressive state in terms of disability inclusion, demonstrating effective practices in appointing State Commissioners who are not part of the civil service, thus ensuring impartiality. • Collaboration with Legal Experts: The Karnataka Commissioner’s office collaborates with law schools and legal experts to strengthen the capacities of its commissioners, enhancing their ability to function as quasi-judicial bodies. • Mobile Adalats: Karnataka has implemented mobile courts (adalats) that reach out to persons with disabilities in remote areas, providing on-the-spot grievance redressal and increasing accessibility to justice. • District Disability Management Review (DDMR): This initiative serves as an inclusive governance tool that allows the State Commissioner to monitor how development programs are implemented at the district level, ensuring that quotas for persons with disabilities are met. • Transparency in Operations: The Karnataka office maintains transparency by publishing information on its website regarding cases received, disposed of, and pending actions, along with annual reports on implementation efforts. • Community Engagement Initiatives: Programs like “Nanhe Farishtey” aim to educate communities about disabilities and promote awareness at Anganwadi centres, fostering early detection and inclusion of children with disabilities. • Intersectional Representation: There is a push for appointing qualified women with disabilities as commissioners to address intersectional discrimination effectively and ensure diverse representation in decision-making processes.
Challenges related to disabilities in India:
Exclusion Due to Social Barriers: Persons with disabilities feel isolated not because of their condition but due to societal designs catering primarily to able-bodied individuals, excluding them from everyday activities.
Inaccessible Infrastructure: Public and private spaces, including buildings, sidewalks, stadiums, theatres, and washrooms, lack adequate accessibility features like ramps and tactile paving, or these exist merely as token gestures.
Limited Recreational Access: The entertainment sector, including cricket stadiums and theatre screenings, fails to consider accessibility needs for wheelchair users or visually impaired individuals, reflecting ableist leisure practices.
Lack of Inclusive Cultural Representation: Mainstream media rarely portrays disabilities sensitively, but films like Margarita with a Straw and Srikanth help challenge stereotypes and foster visibility, giving persons with disabilities a sense of recognition.
Neglect of the Right to Leisure: The absence of efforts to make recreational spaces accessible highlights societal disregard for the right of persons with disabilities to leisure, underlining the need for an inclusive cultural framework.
Way forward:
Judicial Advocacy for Respectful Representation: The Supreme Court ruling, led by former CJI D.Y. Chandrachud, mandates accurate and respectful portrayal of disabilities in visual media to combat discrimination and stereotyping.
Technological Inclusion in Entertainment: Accessibility features like subtitles and audio descriptions on OTT platforms enhance inclusivity, benefiting persons with disabilities, the elderly, and able-bodied audiences alike.
Economic Potential of Accessibility: With the global spending power of persons with disabilities and their networks at $13 trillion, businesses are recognizing inclusivity as a strategic investment, not merely a philanthropic effort.
Building Inclusive Entertainment Ecosystems: Recent initiatives promote active participation of persons with disabilities in the entertainment industry, fostering respect, belonging, and equitable representation in society.
During the ongoing Winter Session of Parliament, the Union Environment Ministry presented data shedding light on the critical issue of coastal erosion in India.
What are the key findings of the report?
Extent of Coastal Erosion Nationwide:
33.6% of India’s coastline has been affected by erosion over the past three decades.
26.9% of the coastline has shown growth (accretion), while 39.6% remains stable.
Regional Variations in Karnataka:
Dakshina Kannada: The most severely affected district in Karnataka, with 48.4% of its 36.66 km coastline eroded (17.74 km).
Udupi: Reported 34.7% erosion of its 100.71 km coastline (34.96 km).
Uttara Kannada: Reported the lowest erosion, at 12.3% of its 175.65 km coastline (21.64 km).
Data and Methodology: The study, conducted by the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), utilized satellite imagery and field surveys to monitor shoreline changes from 1990 to 2018.
Risk Identification and Mapping: The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information and Services (INCOIS) has prepared Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Maps (MHVM), incorporating data on extreme water levels, sea level rise, and shoreline changes to highlight areas prone to disasters like tsunamis and storm surges.
What are the causes of coastal erosion in India?
Rising Sea Levels: Climate change has led to increased sea levels, which amplify storm surges and coastal flooding, significantly contributing to erosion.
Sand Mining and Infrastructure Projects: Unregulated sand extraction and construction activities, such as ports and seawalls, disrupt natural sediment flow, exacerbating erosion in vulnerable areas.
For example, illegal sand mining along the Bhagirathi-Hooghly River has reduced river channel width by up to 55%, significantly increasing erosion risks along the banks.
Mangrove Depletion: The loss of mangroves, which act as natural barriers against wave action, leaves coastlines more exposed to erosion. For instance, after Cyclone Gaja in 2019, Muthupet mangroves in Tamil Nadu lost nearly three square kilometres of coverage due to uprooted trees.
Cyclonic Activity: An increase in cyclonic events has destabilised coastal systems, further intensifying erosion. As per the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) reported that 75% of the Indian coastline is susceptible to cyclones and related hazards.
CASE STUDY: Mitigation Efforts in Karnataka
Shoreline Management Plan: The Karnataka government has developed this plan under the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification of 2019 to address coastal erosion effectively.
Karnataka Strengthening Coastal Resilience and Economy (K-SHORE) Project: Funded by the World Bank, this initiative aims to enhance coastal protection, improve community livelihoods, and tackle marine plastic pollution along Karnataka’s coast.
Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Maps (MHVM): Created by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information and Services (INCOIS), these maps identify areas at risk from disasters like tsunamis and storm surges using data on shoreline changes and sea level rise.
Community-Driven Conservation Programs: Experts advocate for community involvement in conservation efforts, along with real-time monitoring of erosion using artificial intelligence for sustainable solutions.
Why there is a need for a paradigm shift?
Ineffectiveness of Traditional Methods: Long-standing strategies like constructing concrete sea walls have proven ineffective over the past 30 years in preventing coastal erosion.
Recommendations Against Human Habitation: Engineers recommend restricting habitation in vulnerable areas to mitigate risks associated with coastal erosion; however, political interests often overshadow these warnings.
Investment in Sustainable Solutions: Environmental activists argue that funds currently allocated for traditional coastal structures would be better spent on creating safe townships away from vulnerable coastlines, ensuring community safety during extreme weather events.
Holistic Approaches Needed: A multi-faceted strategy involving ecosystem restoration (e.g., mangrove replantation), stricter regulation of sand mining, and innovative solutions like artificial reefs is essential for effective long-term management of coastal erosion issues.
Way forward:
Adopt Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): Implement holistic strategies combining ecosystem restoration, stricter regulations on sand mining, and innovative measures like artificial reefs and eco-friendly breakwaters to ensure long-term coastal resilience.
Promote Managed Retreat and Community Awareness: Relocate vulnerable communities to safer areas away from high-risk zones while fostering community-driven conservation efforts and leveraging real-time monitoring technologies like AI to mitigate erosion impacts effectively.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? (UPSC IAS/2022)
India has been growing well even with global challenges. After growing by 8.2% in 2023-24 and 6.7% in the first quarter of 2024-25, growth slowed down to 5.4% in the second quarter.
Is the Slowdown in GDP Growth a Temporary Setback or a Sign of a Longer-Term Trend?
Current Growth Trends: India’s GDP growth decelerated to 5.4% in the second quarter of FY 2024-25, down from 6.7% in the previous quarter and 8.1% in the same quarter last year. This sharp decline has raised concerns about the sustainability of growth, particularly given that industrial performance has been poor, especially in the mining, manufacturing, and electricity sectors.
Sectoral Performance: The industrial sector’s growth slowed to 3.6% from 8.3%, indicating significant challenges in manufacturing and mining.
While agriculture has shown recovery due to good Kharif harvests, and the services sector remains robust, the overall industrial slowdown suggests vulnerabilities that could impact future growth.
Expectations for Recovery: Despite the current slowdown, there are expectations for GDP growth to rebound in the latter half of the fiscal year due to improved government expenditure and rural consumption. However, this recovery is contingent upon various factors, including global economic conditions and domestic consumption patterns.
Long-Term Concerns: Analysts caution that while some recovery is anticipated, the overall GDP growth for FY 2024-25 is projected to be lower at around 6.5%, which is a decrease from the 7-8% range seen in previous years.
Measures to Stimulate Consumer Sentiment and Boost Household Spending
Tax Benefits for Households: The government could consider implementing tax incentives aimed at increasing disposable income for households, thereby encouraging spending. This could involve direct tax cuts or enhanced deductions for certain expenditures.
Job Creation Initiatives: A strong focus on job creation, especially in sectors vulnerable to automation, could bolster household incomes and consumer confidence. Initiatives could include skill development programs and incentives for businesses that hire more workers.
Support for Agriculture: Given the positive impact of agricultural performance on rural consumption, enhancing support for farmers through subsidies or better access to markets could further stimulate spending in rural areas.
Addressing Inflation Concerns: Moderating food inflation through effective supply chain management and price controls could help ease consumer spending pressures. Ensuring stable prices for essential commodities would improve overall consumer sentiment.
Incentives for Private Investment: Encouraging private sector investment through favorable policies and easing regulatory burdens can lead to increased economic activity and job creation.
How Should Policymakers Respond to Current Economic Challenges? (Way forward)
Enhance Public Investment: Policymakers should prioritize increasing government capital expenditure (capex), which has been weak due to election-related restrictions. A robust public investment strategy can stimulate economic activity and create jobs.
Focus on Deregulation: Continued efforts to deregulate sectors can improve business confidence and attract private investments, fostering a more conducive environment for growth.
Monitor Global Developments: Policymakers need to remain vigilant regarding global economic trends that could impact India’s economy, including potential trade wars or geopolitical tensions. Preparing contingency plans will be crucial in mitigating risks associated with global volatility.
Strengthen Domestic Demand: Given the uncertain global environment, strengthening domestic demand through targeted fiscal policies will be essential for sustainable growth. This includes measures that directly enhance consumer spending power.
Long-Term Growth Strategy: A comprehensive strategy focusing on enhancing productivity across sectors, investing in infrastructure, and fostering innovation will be critical for raising India’s potential GDP growth over the long term.
Mains PYQ:
Q Despite India being one of the countries of Gondwanaland, its mining industry contributes much less to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in percentage. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2021)
December 3, International Day of Persons with Disabilities, promotes awareness of their rights, inclusion, and needs, emphasizing support for one of the world’s most marginalized and underrepresented communities.
What are the barriers faced by individuals with disabilities in accessing nutrition services?
Physical Accessibility: Many individuals with disabilities face challenges in accessing physical locations where nutrition services are provided, such as grocery stores or health clinics. This includes barriers like lack of ramps, inaccessible transportation, and inadequate facilities.
Lack of Knowledge and Skills: Individuals with disabilities may have limited knowledge about nutrition and cooking skills, which can hinder their ability to prepare healthy meals. This is often compounded by the need for assistance from caregivers who may not be well-informed about nutritional needs.
Financial Constraints: Economic factors play a significant role; many individuals with disabilities experience financial instability, limiting their ability to purchase nutritious food. This is particularly true in low-income households where resources are scarce.
Social Isolation and Stigma: People with disabilities often face social isolation and stigma, which can affect their access to community resources and support networks that provide nutritional assistance or education.
Complex Health Needs: Many individuals with disabilities have specific dietary requirements or face challenges related to feeding, swallowing, or digestion, making it difficult to meet their nutritional needs without tailored support.
Inadequate Public Health Support: In many regions, public health systems fail to provide adequate nutritional support for individuals with disabilities, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where resources may be limited.
How can nutrition programs be adapted to ensure they are inclusive of individuals with disabilities?
Tailored Nutritional Education: Nutrition programs should include educational components that cater specifically to the needs of individuals with disabilities, focusing on accessible cooking methods and meal planning that accommodate various dietary restrictions.
Accessible Service Delivery: Programs should ensure that nutrition services are delivered in accessible locations and formats, including home visits for those unable to travel or online platforms for remote consultations.
Community Engagement: Involving individuals with disabilities in the design and implementation of nutrition programs can help ensure that their unique needs are met. This could include feedback mechanisms to adapt services based on community input.
Training for Caregivers: Providing training for caregivers on the specific nutritional needs of individuals with disabilities can enhance meal preparation and dietary management at home.
Financial Assistance Programs: Implementing subsidies or financial assistance programs can help alleviate the economic burden on families caring for individuals with disabilities, enabling them to purchase healthier food options.
Integration with Health Services: Nutrition programs should be integrated with broader health services to provide comprehensive support that addresses both nutritional needs and overall health outcomes.
What role do Anganwadi workers play in promoting disability inclusion in their communities?
Early Identification and Referral: Anganwadi workers play a crucial role in the early identification of disabilities among children through monitoring developmental milestones and referring families to appropriate health services.
Community Education: They engage communities through initiatives like podcasts (e.g., “Nanhe Farishtey”) to raise awareness about disabilities and promote inclusive practices within local settings.
Nutrition Service Delivery: As frontline community nutrition providers, Anganwadi workers deliver vital nutrition services tailored to the needs of children with disabilities, ensuring they receive adequate dietary support.
Collaboration with Other Health Workers: Anganwadi workers collaborate with Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) workers to create a network of support for families dealing with disabilities, facilitating access to medical care and government benefits.
Capacity Building: Ongoing training on disability inclusion through protocols like the ‘Anganwadi Protocol for Divyang Children’ equips workers with the knowledge necessary to support children with disabilities effectively.
Advocacy for Rights and Resources: They advocate for the rights of persons with disabilities within their communities, helping families navigate available resources such as disability certificates and pensions.
Way forward:
Strengthen Inclusive Infrastructure and Services: Develop accessible infrastructure, including Anganwadi centres and transportation, while integrating nutrition programs with health services to provide tailored support for individuals with disabilities.
Empower Community and Frontline Workers: Enhance training for Anganwadi workers and caregivers, promote community engagement to address stigma, and ensure financial support for families to improve access to nutritious food and essential services.
Mains PYQ:
Q The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment. (UPSC IAS/2022)
Urbanisation is important in UPSC CSE Mains due to its impact on economic growth, social dynamics, and governance challenges. It underscores the need for sustainable urban planning, infrastructure development, and equitable resource distribution to manage its complex implications effectively.
Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme
Does urbanisation lead to more segregation and/or marginalisation of the poor in Indian metropolises? (2023)
How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of consumption? (2022)
Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration. (2015)
Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanisation in India. (2013)
How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India? (2019)
With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’. (2016)
Sub-themes
In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following subthemes:
Urbanisation is the process of transformation that occurs as a society evolves from predominantly rural to predominantly urban areas. Urbanisation encompasses social, economic, and cultural transformations. It is driven by the migration of individuals from rural to urban areas in pursuit of employment opportunities, improved living standards, access to better education and healthcare facilities.
Growth Trends
Period
Cities with Population >1 Million
Share of Urban Population
2001
35
37%
2011
53
42.6%
Future Projections
By 2031, nearly 41% of people will reside in urban India, with significant prosperity in metros and boom towns. States like Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and West Bengal are witnessing faster middle-class growth, driven by multiple urban centres.
Challenges faced by Urban Middle Class
Challenge
Solution
Urban Congestion
Develop infrastructure to accommodate growth. Example: Metro rail projects in major cities
Promote skill development and diversified job opportunities. Example: Skill India Mission
Healthcare and Education
Enhance public healthcare and educational facilities. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan
Environmental Impact
Invest in sustainable urban development practices. Example: AMRUT Mission
Smart Cities Mission
One hundred cities were selected for five years under the mission, aimed at driving economic growth and improving the quality of life of people by enabling local development and harnessing technology.
Adequate water supply, Assured electricity supply, Sanitation, Efficient urban mobility and public transport, Affordable housing, Robust IT connectivity and digitalisation, Good governance, Sustainable environment, Safety and security, Health and education.
Funding and Implementation
The mission, initially planned for five years (FY 2015-16 to FY 2019-20), was extended until June 2024. It operates as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Rs 48,000 crores of financial support from the Central Government over five years. States and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) contribute matching funds, bringing the total to nearly Rs 1 lakh crore for Smart Cities development.
A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) led by a bureaucrat or MNC representative, and other major stakeholders was created, bypassing traditional city governance models.
Comprehensive development is achieved by integrating the SCM with other sectoral schemes like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, Skill Development, and Housing for All.
Challenges
Solutions
Funding Shortfalls: Securing adequate funding is a significant challenge due to the ambitious scope of the Smart Cities Mission. Relying solely on government funds is insufficient.
Increase private sector participation and develop innovative financing models. Example: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in infrastructure projects.
Exclusion of Areas: The mission often focuses on specific areas within a city, leading to the exclusion of other regions that also need development.
Ensure inclusive development across entire cities. Example: Integrated development planning with AMRUT Mission.
Governance Issues: Effective governance is crucial but can be hindered by bureaucratic inefficiencies, lack of coordination, and insufficient capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
Strengthen governance frameworks and SPV structures. Example: Training and capacity building programs for ULBs.
Displacement of Communities: Urban development projects can lead to the displacement of poorer communities, with residents being forced out without adequate compensation or relocation plans.
Implement policies to protect vulnerable populations. Example: Rajiv Awas Yojana.
Infrastructure Disruptions: Large-scale infrastructure projects can disrupt urban environments, causing issues like urban flooding, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation.
Use sustainable urban planning to avoid infrastructure issues like flooding. Example: Nature-based solutions and green infrastructure.
Urban-Rural Linkages
Urban-Rural Linkages touch on a broad variety of thematic areas ranging from urban and territorial planning, strengthening small and intermediate towns, enabling spatial flows of people, products, services and information to fostering food security systems.
They also involve addressing mobility and migration, reducing the environmental impact in urban-rural convergences, developing legislation and governance structures, and promoting inclusive financial investments.
Importance of Urban-Rural Linkages
Mutual Dependence: Urban and rural areas rely on each other for economic and social stability. Balanced development ensures mutual growth.
Reducing Rural Poverty: Strengthening linkages helps reduce rural poverty by enhancing access to markets, services, and opportunities.
Integrated Planning: Essential for achieving sustainable development goals by promoting cohesive planning and resource management.
Economic Growth: Urban areas provide markets for rural products, while rural areas supply food and raw materials.
Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the exchange of social and cultural practices, enriching both communities.
Infrastructure and Services: Integrated planning improves the delivery of transportation, healthcare, and education.
Environmental Sustainability: Balanced development helps manage natural resources more sustainably, reducing environmental degradation.
Managing Migration: Better linkages can manage migration flows, reducing pressure on urban areas and providing rural opportunities.
Effective Governance: Integrated governance ensures coherent development strategies for both urban and rural areas.
Challenges and Solutions for Urban-Rural Linkages
Challenges
Solutions
Development Gaps: Significant development gaps exist between urban and rural areas, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities.
Implement integrated urban and territorial planning. Example: Integrated Rural Urban Linkages (IRUL) framework by UN-Habitat.
Infrastructure Deficit: Rural areas often suffer from a lack of essential infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and communication networks, hindering connectivity with urban areas.
Invest in infrastructure to support rural-urban connectivity. Example: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY).
Economic Disparities: Economic disparities between urban and rural areas lead to uneven development and limited economic opportunities for rural populations.
Promote balanced economic development and inclusive investments. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM).
Governance Issues: Fragmented governance and lack of coordination between different administrative levels and sectors hinder effective implementation of development policies.
One of the most complex challenges India faces today is the pace and pattern of urbanisation. By 2036, its towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40% of the population, up from 31% in 2011. Urban areas are expected to contribute almost 70% to GDP. Managing this urban transformation effectively will be crucial for India’s ambition of becoming a developed country by 2047.
Key Statistics
Period
Urban Population (%)
Urban Population (millions)
2011
31%
~377
2036
40%
~600
2050
50%
~820
Investment Needs
India will need to invest $840 billion in infrastructure by 2036, averaging $55 billion or 1.2% of GDP annually. However, between 2011 and 2018, India’s total capital expenditure on urban infrastructure averaged only 0.6% of GDP.
Funding Sources
Percentage
Central and State Governments
72%
Commercial Financing
5%
Private Financing
High potential but underutilised
Key Strategies for Urban Transformation
Strategy
Example
Set up Smart New Cities
Develop new urban areas with modern infrastructure and facilities. Implement public-private partnership models. Example: Dholera Smart City Project.
Develop Transport Corridors
Leverage transport corridors for new city locations. Establish corridor development agencies to tie up with city planning. Example: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC).
Revitalise Manufacturing Sector
Incentivise the location of manufacturing units in new cities. Use specially empowered governance structures to streamline approvals. Example: Make in India initiative.
Build Capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
Execute bankable projects to attract private investment. Develop municipal bond markets and innovative financing structures. Example: Capacity building programs under AMRUT Mission.
Invest in Public Services
Improve access to healthcare and education. Enhance public transportation systems. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Promote Water Security
Develop infrastructure for efficient water use and recycling. Example: Jal Jeevan Mission.
Examples of Urban Transformation
City/Town
Initiative
Chennai
Holistic approach to transportation, establishing a nodal body.
Surat
Large-scale wastewater recycling.
Dharampuri
Integrated approach to water supply, recycling wastewater.
Challenges and Solutions for Rapid Urbanisation
Challenge
Solution with Example
Infrastructure Deficit
Increase investment in urban infrastructure development. Example: AMRUT Mission.
Environmental Sustainability
Implement sustainable urban planning and green technologies. Example: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
Economic Disparities
Promote inclusive economic growth and employment opportunities. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).
Urban heat islands (UHIs) are local and temporary phenomena where certain pockets within a city experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to trapped heat.
Causes of Urban Heat Islands
Cause
Details
Construction Activities
Increased use of asphalt and concrete trapping heat.
Dark Surfaces
Buildings with dark surfaces absorb more heat.
Air Conditioning
Increased energy use and local heating from air conditioners.
Urban Architecture
Tall buildings and narrow streets reduce air circulation.
Transportation Systems
Use of fossil fuels adds warmth.
Lack of Green Areas
Reduces cooling effects from evapotranspiration and shade.
Plant trees and increase green spaces. Example: Green Delhi Campaign.
Passive Cooling Technologies
Use naturally ventilated building designs. Example: Traditional architecture in Jodhpur.
Appropriate Construction Materials
Use materials with higher reflectivity. Example: Cool roofs in Ahmedabad.
Roof and Terrace Treatments
Paint roofs and terraces with white or light colours. Example: White roofs initiative in Jaipur.
Promote Terrace Plantation
Encourage rooftop gardens and kitchen gardens. Example: Rooftop gardens in Bangalore.
Government Efforts towards Sustainable Urbanisation
Initiative
Description
Example
AMRUT
A step towards harnessing the agglomeration economies of urban centres.
AMRUT initiatives in Varanasi and Bhopal
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
Programme for affordable housing with credit-linked subsidy.
Affordable housing projects in Mumbai
Smart Cities Mission
Urban development programme to develop 100 cities across the country, making them citizen-friendly and sustainable.
Smart city projects in Pune and Surat
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)
Scheme for the holistic development of heritage cities.
HRIDAY projects in Varanasi and Jaipur
Swachh Bharat Mission
Initiative to promote cleanliness and sanitation across urban and rural areas.
Deen Dayal Antodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY – NULM)
Aims at creating opportunities for skill development leading to market-based employment and helping the poor set up self-employment ventures.
Skill development programmes
Urban Transport
Interventions like Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) and financing of metro rail projects.
BRTS in cities like Ahmedabad
Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme
Facilitates development of bankable urban infrastructure projects and helps Urban Local Bodies access capital and financial markets.
Municipal bonds for urban infrastructure
North Eastern Region Urban Development Programme (NERUDP)
Covers priority urban services like water supply, sewerage and sanitation, and solid waste management in the capital cities of five North Eastern states.
Urban development in Agartala and Aizawl
Measures Needed for Urban Development
Measure
Description
Example
Increase Connectivity and Infrastructure
Initiatives like AMRUT, Smart Cities, Digital India, BharatMala, PMGSY to spread the manufacturing sector evenly.
Improved connectivity through BharatMala in remote areas
Planning of Peri-Urban Areas
Proper planning and increased connectivity to spread out the population evenly.
RURBAN scheme to develop rural-urban clusters
Improve Access to Telecommunication and Post-Secondary Education
Improve access in secondary cities to spread the service sector.
Expansion of telecommunication networks in tier-2 cities
Incentivise Setting Up Manufacturing Industries
Encourage setting up industries in underdeveloped areas.
National Industrial Manufacturing Zones
Strengthen Allied Activities
Boost food processing through Food Parks to reduce migration.
Establishment of Food Parks in states like Punjab
Boost MSMEs in Smaller Cities
Encourage growth of MSMEs responsible for creating jobs.
Support for MSMEs in cities like Coimbatore and Sura
Urbanisation is a dynamic process that brings both opportunities and challenges. Effective urban planning, inclusive policies, and sustainable development strategies are essential to harness the positive impacts of urbanisation and address its associated problems. By promoting ‘good’ urbanisation, India can achieve higher living standards, economic growth, and social cohesion, ultimately contributing to the nation’s overall development.
The ICIMOD has launched Air Quality Dashboard for Indo-Gangetic Plain.
ICIMOD Air Quality Dashboard: Important Features
The dashboard provides real-time and forecasted air quality data for the region.
It uses a combination of ground sensor data and satellite imagery to give a comprehensive view of air pollution across local, sub-regional, and regional scales.
A dynamic timelapse powered by the Weather Research and Forecasting model with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) tracks the spread of PM2.5 across the region.
This model highlights the spread of pollution from hotspots like Lahore, New Delhi, and Kolkata.
It provides two-day forecasts, allowing communities, policymakers, and researchers to anticipate air quality conditions and take proactive measures.
Aboutthe International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD):
Details
A regional intergovernmental learning and knowledge-sharing centre founded in 1981.
Idea of creating ICIMOD was first discussed at the International Workshop in December 1974.
8 regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan.
HKH region encompasses mountain ranges, including the Hindu Kush, Himalayas, and Tibetan Plateau, extending from northern Afghanistan to Myanmar.
Structural Mandate
Headquartered in Khumaltar, Lalitpur, and Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.
ICIMOD also has a Knowledge Park in Godavari, Lalitpur exhibiting ICIMOD’s research and field applications.
Country offices in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Functions and Powers
Collaborates with national and international scientific institutions, government agencies, donor agencies, and the private sector, both within the region and globally.
Key Role: Promotes partnerships among regional member countries to secure a better future for the people and environment of the HKH region.
PYQ:
[2012] When you travel in Himalayas, you will see the following:
Deep gorges
U-turn river courses
Parallel mountain ranges
Steep gradients causing land sliding
Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for Himalayas being young fold mountains?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
The Odisha government has clarified that it will not allow bauxite mining in the Gandhamardan hills after concerns arose when the Adani Group’s subsidiary acquired 112 acres of land near the hills.
AboutGandhamardan Hills:
Geographical Features
Situated in the western part of Odisha, spread across the Bargarh and Bolangir districts.
Covers an area of 190 square kilometers.
Dense forests and hill slopes.
Plays a crucial role in sustaining the livelihoods of local communities.
Mines and Minerals Found
Bauxite: Primary ore of aluminum.
Graphite: Used in industrial applications.
Manganese: Important for steel manufacturing.
Significance
Cultural Sites:
1. Nrusinghanath Temple: A major pilgrimage site dedicated to Lord Nrusingha, a half-lion, half-human incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
2. Harishankar Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Vishnu, set amidst picturesque surroundings.
Hiuen Tsang described the hill shrine as a Buddhist heritage site named Parimalagiri in his chronicles.
– Flora: Rich in medicinal plants.
– Fauna: Rich biodiversity, including diverse wildlife species.
Dasycarpa and spiderpeucetia harishankarensis are endemic to this hill.
