A recent study uncovers the origins and evolution of Baobabs, uniquely shaped trees in Madagascar, with species also native to Africa and Australia.
Do you know?
Mandu, in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, is perhaps the only place in India where baobab trees are found in abundance, with an estimated 1,000 trees in the periphery of the town.
Madhya Pradesh state government has plans to apply for a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the Khorasani Imli or the fruit of the baobab.
A Baobab tree near the Golconda Fort in Andhra Pradesh is believed to be more than 400 years old.
Aside from Mandu, baobab trees have been recorded in Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad) in Uttar Pradesh, Wai in Maharashtra, and some places in Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
About Baobab Trees
Baobabs are deciduous trees (that lose their leaves in autumn) belonging to the genus Adansonia. It comprises 8 distinct species:
Adansonia digitata in continental Africa.
Adansonia gregorii in Northwestern Australia.
6 other species endemic to Madagascar.
Baobabs are known for:
Great heights, with some extending up to 50 metres.
Exceptionally long lifespans, going up to 2,000 years.
They have trunks with large circumferences; thin, spindly branches.
Nicknamed “upside down” trees because their tops resemble uprooted plants turned upside down.
Conservation Status:
‘Threatened’ with extinction according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
‘Least Concern’ category but still faces threats such as residential and commercial development and livestock farming and ranching.
Importance of Conservation:
The study emphasized the conservation of the baobab as a keystone species:
Keystone species provide essential resources, such as food or shelter, for a guild of animals.
In return, these animals provide essential services, such as pollination or diaspore dispersal.
Why Baobab tree is called the “Mother of Forests”?
They can store large amounts of fresh water in their extraordinary trunks.
It also allows the baobab tree to produce nutritious fruits even during the driest years.
This makes them true life savers during times when water is scarce.
In local cultures, they are revered for multiple uses:
Edible fruits and seeds.
Seed oil used for cooking.
Bark fibre used for clothing.
PYQ:
[2021] “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees.” This is the most likely description of-
[2022] The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet them?
[2020] Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Note4Students:
Prelims: NA
Mains: Hypertension, WHO’s HEARTS Strategy, India’s Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI)
Mentor’s Comment: Hypertension, a major but overlooked risk factor for heart attacks and strokes, causes 10.8 million preventable deaths annually, surpassing risks like tobacco use and high blood sugar. The WHO’s 2023 report reveals that 1.3 billion adults globally have hypertension, with 46% unaware of their condition. In India, 311 million adults suffer from hypertension, triple the number with diabetes.
Let’s learn___
Why in the News?
Over the past three years, the COVID-19 vaccine has attracted significant public attention as a potential risk factor for blood clot formation, leading to sudden cardiac arrest.
What is Hypertension?
Hypertension (high blood pressure) is when the pressure in your blood vessels is too high (140/90 mmHg or higher). It is common but can be serious if not treated. Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly and taking medication can help lower blood pressure.
WHO Report on Hypertension
2023 WHO Report: In 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) released its first-ever report on hypertension titled “Global Report on Hypertension: The Race against a Silent Killer.”
Silent Killer: Hypertension is often called a silent killer because people are usually unaware of their high blood pressure until they develop complications.
Leading Cause of Death: High blood pressure causes more deaths than other leading risk factors, such as tobacco use and high blood sugar.
Rising Numbers: The number of adults with hypertension nearly doubled since 1990 to reach 1.3 billion.
Awareness and Control: Globally, an estimated 46% of adults with hypertension are unaware of their condition, and less than half (42%) are diagnosed and treated. Only one in five adults (21%) with hypertension has it under control.
Hypertension in India
Prevalence in India: The Indian Council of Medical Research-INdia DIABetes (ICMR-INDIAB) study estimates that in India, 311 million people (or one in every three adults) have hypertension.
Comparison with Diabetes: In India, adults with hypertension are threefold of the estimated 101 million people living with diabetes.
Dietary Salt and Hypertension
Impact of Excess Salt: Excess dietary salt intake (five grams or more per day) is a key risk factor for hypertension and contributed to two million cardiovascular disease deaths in 2019.
Benefits of Reducing Salt Intake: Research shows that reducing salt intake can reduce cardiovascular disease risks by 30% and mortality by 20%.
Salt Consumption in India: Indian adults consume on average eight to 11 grams of salt per day, which is approximately twice the WHO-recommended daily intake.
Deaths Due to High Salt Intake: High salt intake is responsible for an estimated 175,000 deaths in India.
Hypertension across Socio-Economic Groups
Universal Impact: Hypertension affects all socio-economic groups.
Health Camps Findings: A Delhi-based NGO, Foundation for People-centric Health Systems, conducted 50 health camps in five localities of Delhi and Gurugram from October 2023 to March 2024, screening and treating around 12,000 people.
Detection in Low-Income Groups: Many were women, migrant workers, and rickshaws and taxi drivers from low-income groups. A large number were found to have diabetes and hypertension, with most cases detected for the first time in these camps, indicating gaps in awareness, detection, and treatment.
Back2Basics: India’s Hypertension Control Initiative (2021):
Objective: India aims to put 75 million people with hypertension and/or diabetes on standard care by 2025.
Initiation and Expansion: The IHCI, a collaborative project of ICMR, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare/Directorate General of Health Services, WHO India, and other partners, was initiated in November 2017 in 25 districts across five states and expanded to 140-plus districts of India in 2023.
Strategies: IHCI follows five simple and scalable strategies implemented through primary health care:
-Simplified drug and dose-specific treatment protocols for primary-care settings. -Strengthening the drug supply chain by including protocol-based drugs in the State essential drug list, forecasting drugs based on morbidity, and ensuring adequate budget allocation in annual plans. -Team-based and decentralized care. -Patient-centric measures such as dispensing 30 days of medicine during each patient visit. -Use of information systems for program monitoring.
Programmatic Learnings from IHCI
Access and Utilization: Nearly six years of IHCI implementation has resulted in two major learnings:
Simple treatment protocols with fewer drugs, reliable drug supply, linking patients to facilities closer to home for follow-up, and engaging teams increase access and utilization of health services from government facilities.
Simplified program monitoring makes performance assessment quantifiable and actionable.
Recognition: The IHCI won the 2022 UN Interagency Task Force and WHO Special Programme on Primary Health Care Award.
Future Goals and Prevention
Global Goals: Seventy-six million cardiovascular deaths and 450 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) could be avoided if countries achieve 50% population hypertension control by 2050.
India’s Targets: An estimated 4.6 million deaths can be prevented in India by 2040 if half the hypertensive population has its blood pressure under control, helping to achieve targets under the National Health Policy and global commitments like universal health coverage.
Way Forward
Raise Awareness: Educate the public about the risks and long-term adverse impacts of untreated hypertension. High blood pressure can affect multiple organs, including the heart, kidneys, brain, and eyes.
Scale Up Evidence-Based Interventions: Expand successful programs like IHCI. Use strategies and lessons from such experiences to design interventions for other lifestyle diseases like diabetes and chronic kidney diseases.
Focus on Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: Address non-modifiable risk factors such as family history, age over 65 years, and pre-existing comorbidities like diabetes and/or kidney disease. Focus on healthy adults with known non-modifiable risk factors.
Reduce Dietary Salt Consumption: Implement strategies like “SHAKE the salt habit” under WHO’s HEARTS strategy:
Surveillance to measure and monitor salt use.
Harness industry to promote and reformulate foods with less salt.
Adopt standard labelling and marketing.
Educate and communicate to empower individuals to eat less salt.
Support environments that promote healthy eating.
Conclusion: As hypertension continues to exact a heavy toll on global health, concerted efforts are needed to raise awareness, implement evidence-based interventions, and promote healthier lifestyles. By prioritizing hypertension control initiatives and fostering a culture of preventive healthcare, we can mitigate the devastating impact of this silent killer on communities worldwide.
The recent drop in agricultural production due to El-Nino has highlighted once more the critical role Punjab and Haryana play in ensuring India’s food security.
Role of Punjab and Haryana for the Food Security of India:
Punjab and Haryana are crucial in years with bad monsoons or climate shocks.
The average per hectare wheat and paddy yields in these states are 4.8 tonnes and 6.5 tonnes, respectively, significantly higher than the all-India averages of 3.5 tonnes and 4.1 tonnes.
Wheat Production:
Traditional procurement: Until the mid-2000s, Punjab and Haryana supplied over 90% of the wheat for India’s public distribution system (PDS) and other government programs.
Impact of the Green Revolution: The spread of high-yielding varieties to other states and the establishment of infrastructure for buying grain at minimum support prices (MSP) reduced Punjab and Haryana’s share to around 65% by the early 2010s.
In 2019-20 and 2020-21, total wheat procurement reached record levels (39-43.3 million tons), with Punjab and Haryana’s share falling to just over 50%. Madhya Pradesh became the top wheat procurer in 2019-20, surpassing Punjab.
Climate Shocks: The last three years have seen production setbacks due to climate shocks, including: An unseasonal temperature surge in March 2022. Heavy rain in March 2023 during the grain formation stage.
Recent Climate Impact:
In 2023-24, unusually warm temperatures in November-December impacted wheat yields, especially in central India. The delayed winter, attributed to El Nino, led to premature flowering and shortened the vegetative growth phase.
Regional Impact:
Madhya Pradesh’s wheat procurement dropped significantly from 12.8-12.9 million tons in 2019-20 and 2020-21 to about 4.6 million tons.
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan also saw significant declines from their 2020-21 highs.
Punjab and Haryana have been less affected due to longer winters and later sowing (early to mid-November).
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar reported good production due to near-normal March temperatures, but much of their produce was sold to private traders at prices above the MSP.
Rice production in the states:
Traditional Procurement: Government rice procurement was historically concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and the Godavari-Krishna and Kaveri delta regions of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and Tamil Nadu (TN).
Diversification: There has been a diversification in rice procurement, with new states like Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh (UP) becoming significant contributors to the Central pool.
Change in Procurement Shares: The combined share of Punjab and Haryana in total rice procurement decreased from 43-44% in the early 2000s to an average of 28.8% in the four years ending 2022-23. In the current crop year, this share has risen to around 32.9%, with some procurements still pending in Telangana, AP, and TN.
Impact of Irrigation:
Farmers in Punjab and Haryana, with assured access to irrigation, did not suffer production losses from last year’s patchy monsoon attributed to El Niño.
In contrast, states like Telangana saw reduced rabi paddy planting and struggled with irrigation due to depleted groundwater levels.
Policy implications
NFSA Entitlements: Under the NFSA, about 813.5 million people are entitled to receive 5 kg of wheat or rice per month through the Public Distribution System (PDS) at highly subsidized prices.
Current Government Policy: Since January 2023, the current government has been providing this grain to all NFSA beneficiaries free of cost.
Way Forward:
Adoption of Climate-Resilient Varieties: Develop and promote high-yield, climate-resilient wheat varieties that are tolerant to heat, drought, and diseases.
Efficient Irrigation Systems: Invest in modern irrigation systems such as drip and sprinkler irrigation to ensure efficient water use.
Invest in Agricultural Research: Increase funding for agricultural research institutions to develop new wheat varieties and innovative farming techniques.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why did the Green Revolution in India virtually by-pass the eastern region despite fertile soil and good availability of water? (UPSC IAS/2014)
The ECI urges star campaigners to uphold societal harmony, sparking debate on its efficacy in curbing MCC violations and enforcing norms.
Criteria for Registration of Political Parties:
Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act) outlines the criteria for registering a political party with the Election Commission of India (ECI).
Any party seeking registration must submit a copy of its memorandum or constitution. This document must declare that the party will faithfully adhere to the Constitution of India.
Additionally, it must commit to the principles of socialism, secularism, and democracy, and uphold the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
How are political parties registered in India?
A political party recognized as a ‘National’ or ‘state’ party under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 (Symbols Order) by the Election Commission of India (ECI) is referred to as a Recognized Political Party (RPP).
Recognition as a ‘National’ or ‘state’ political party is contingent upon meeting specific criteria, such as winning a requisite number of seats or obtaining a required percentage of votes in a general election to the Lok Sabha or State Assembly.
Currently, there are 6 National political parties and 61 state political parties that have been granted recognition. Recognized parties benefit from additional privileges, including the reservation of a symbol during elections and the designation of forty ‘star campaigners’.
Registered political parties enjoy the following legal benefits:
Tax exemption for donations received under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
Common symbol for contesting general elections to the Lok Sabha/State Assemblies
Twenty ‘star campaigners’ during the election campaign. As per the ECI, there are 2,790 active registered political parties in India.
What are the issues related Criteria for Deregistration?
Misuse of Privileges: Non-contesting RUPPs raise concerns about potential misuse of benefits like income tax exemption and donations for purposes such as money laundering.
Absence of De-registration Powers: The Representation of the People Act (RP Act) does not explicitly empower the Election Commission of India (ECI) to de-register political parties for failure to contest elections, conduct inner-party elections, or submit required returns.
Legal Limitations: The Supreme Court ruling in “Indian National Congress versus Institute of Social Welfare & Ors (2002)” affirmed that the ECI lacks the authority to de-register political parties under the RP Act, except under extraordinary circumstances such as fraudulent registration or cessation of allegiance to the Constitution.
Violations of Model Code of Conduct (MCC): Recognised political parties have been found guilty of breaching the MCC, which prohibits the exploitation of caste and communal sentiments for electoral gain, as well as voter bribery and intimidation.
What needs to be done? (Way Forward)
The Election Commission of India (ECI) has proposed amendments to the law in its 2016 memorandum for electoral reforms, aiming to grant the ECI the authority to deregister political parties.
The Law Commission’s 255th report on ‘Electoral reforms’ in 2015 also advocated for amendments allowing the de-registration of a political party if it abstains from contesting elections for 10 consecutive years. These recommendations should be put into effect.
Paragraph 16A of the Symbols order grants the ECI the power to suspend or revoke the recognition of a recognized political party if it fails to adhere to the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) or comply with lawful directives from the Commission.
Although this provision has been utilized only once, as seen in the temporary suspension of the National People’s Party’s recognition in 2015 for non-compliance with ECI directives, stricter enforcement of this measure would foster adherence to the MCC.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct.(UPSC IAS/2022)
According to the recent report published in Women’s Reproductive Health under the title ‘Reported Reasons for Undergoing Hysterectomy Among Women Aged 45 Years and Above‘, it was seen that data is lacking on women’s health conditions; thus the true magnitude is never known, impeding funding and escaping the attention of policymakers.
What is Hysterectomy?
A hysterectomy is surgery to remove the uterus. After a hysterectomy, you will not menstruate (have periods) or be able to get pregnant.
Uterus removal is a common treatment for a variety of conditions that affect a woman’s reproductive organs.
Key highlights of the Report:
Reasons for Undertaking Hysterectomy:
Medical Conditions: Common medical reasons such as fibroids, excessive bleeding, prolapse, endometriosis, and cancer.
Socioeconomic Factors: Influence of sociodemographic factors like age, education, income, and access to healthcare services.
Cultural and Regional Differences: Variations in hysterectomy rates and reasons across different regions and cultural contexts within India.
Frequency of Hysterectomy:
Global Context: Hysterectomy is one of the most frequently performed surgeries among women worldwide.
Prevalence in India: The countrywide hysterectomy prevalence rate is 11.5%. The highest prevalence is reported in the southern (18.2%) and western (12.7%) regions of India.
According to the NFHS-5 (2019-2021), 3.3% of women aged 15–49 underwent hysterectomy, a slight increase from 3.2% in NFHS-4. Alarmingly, 50% of women who underwent hysterectomy did so before the age of 35.
Regional Variations: Andhra Pradesh has the highest prevalence rate at 63 per 1,000 women, followed by Telangana (55 per 1,000), Karnataka (29 per 1,000), and Punjab (23 per 1,000).
Sociodemographic Factors: Higher risk of hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.
Most Cited Reasons for Hysterectomy:
Primary Reasons:
Heavy Menstrual Bleeding or Pain: Cited by 32.1% of women as the reason for undergoing hysterectomy.
Fibroids or Cysts: Cited by 24.2% of women as the reason for the surgery.
Uterine Prolapse: Cited by 16.3% of women.
Less Frequently Reported Reasons:
Cancer: Among the least reported reasons for undergoing a hysterectomy.
Severe Post-Partum Hemorrhage is also among the least reported reasons.
Sociodemographic Factors:
Higher risk of undergoing hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.
What are the Ministerial guidelines?
Hysterectomy is a major surgery with a long recovery time and should be considered only after less invasive treatments have been tried.
The government emphasizes on attempting nonsurgical alternatives in elective cases before opting for a hysterectomy.
Way Forward:
Healthcare Providers: Train healthcare providers about the potential overuse of hysterectomy and emphasize the importance of considering nonsurgical alternatives.
Public Awareness: Launch awareness campaigns to educate women about gynecological health, the implications of hysterectomy, and available alternatives.
Mains PYQ:
Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)
The southern part of India historically ruled by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings, was known for its great literature, art, culture, and temple architecture.
It also witnessed fierce battles among these kingdoms led by Raja Raja I.
Who was Raja Raja I?
His reign marked a golden era for the Chola Empire through extensive military conquests, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
Ponniyin Selvan (The Son of Ponni) is a Tamil language historical fiction novel with the story of the early days of Prince Raja Raja I (also called Arulmozhivarman).
Here are detailed facts and key events from the reign of Raja Raja I:
Background and Ascension to the Throne:
Full Name:Arulmozhivarman, popularly known as Raja Raja Chola I.
Reign:
He reigned from 985 AD to 1014 AD, taking the throne following the death of his father Sundara Chola.
He was succeeded by Rajendra I.
Military Conquests:
Raja Raja I embarked on several military campaigns that significantly expanded the Chola Empire.
He conquered parts of what is now Tamil Nadu, northern parts of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, consolidating the Chola influence across the region.
His most notable military achievement was the conquest of the ancient Chera capital of Mahodayapuram and the invasion of Sri Lanka, where he captured the northern half of the island.
Nagapattinam Port was his major naval base.
His success allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Kadaram (Malaysia).
Administrative Reforms:
He streamlined the administrative structure of the empire with precise revenue collection and management systems.
He implemented a well-organized provincial administration with efficient governance, dividing his empire into various provinces under the control of local governors.
Cultural Contributions and Temple Building:
Raja Raja I was a great patron of the arts and architecture. Under his reign, Chola architecture and Tamil literature flourished.
Construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (Dravidian style).
Completed in 1010 AD
He also supported the revival of Hinduism and promoted Shaivism, actively endowing temples and supporting the livelihood of the temple priests. He called himself ‘Shivapada Shekhara’.
He also allowed for the flourishing of other religiouspractices for example Vaishnavism and Buddhism.
Trade and Diplomacy:
His reign saw an increase in trade and diplomatic contacts with far-off kingdoms, including those in Southeast Asia.
The Chola navy played a crucial role in protecting and enhancing trade routes in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
To promote trade, Rajaraja sent the first Chola mission to China.
About the Battle of Udagai/Udayagiri
It occurred in 1003 CE between the Cholas and the Cheras at Udagai, now known as Udayagiri in Kalkulam taluk of Kanniyakumari district, during the reign of Raja Raja I, the greatest of Chola kings.
It was the bloodiest war in medieval Indian history, where the Cholas plundered Udagai and returned to their headquarters in Thanjavur with tonnes of gold and the best elephants.
The battle began with the conquest of Kanthalur Salai in the Chera Kingdom.
The Chola army was led by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra.
Evidence from Epigraphy
The Discovery of a Chola period epigraphy near Chengam suggests that Salai was an army training centre run by the Cheras.
The training centre was a challenge to the Cholas.
The battle marked the end of the relationship between the Cholas and the Cheras, which had been established through marriages.
Aftermath of the War
The battles terminated the relationship between the Cholas and Cheras during the reign of Rajendra Chola.
In 1004 CE, Raja Raja celebrated his birthday grandly in the Chera kingdom, renaming the village Muttam as Mummudi Chola Nalloor.
He granted the temple at Thirunanthikarai for a seven-day celebration of his birthday.
Subsequently, he returned to Thanjavur with gold, elephants, and cattle.
Kamban Manian, a Chola general, brought a Shiva idol made of emerald to Thirupazhanam near Thanjavur, though it is no longer found there.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following events in the history of India:
Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I.
Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
A recent study has uncovered the intricate structure of their communication system, which appears to possess a “phonetic alphabet,” offering new insights into the depth of their social interactions.
Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales, utilize a diverse array of vocalizations to communicate, including bursts of clicking noises known as ‘codas’.
About Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus)).
Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales
It has a series of vertical creases or wrinkles on its body and a small, inconspicuous dorsal fin located near the rear of its back.
The sperm whale uses ‘echolocation’ to navigate and locate prey during these deep dives.
Prey: Sperm whales primarily feed on squid (including the giant squid) sharks and deep-sea fish.
Habitat: Sperm whales are found in deep oceanic waters worldwide, from the equator to the edges of the pack ice in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Behavior: Known for their exceptional diving capabilities, sperm whales can dive to depths of over 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) and stay submerged for up to 90 minutes. They are social animals, typically found in groups called ‘pods’, which can contain up to twenty individuals.
Conservation Status: Listed as ‘VULNERABLE’ by the IUCN.
Threats cause: Collisions with ships, entanglement in fishing gear, and noise pollution.
Insights from the Study:
Expressivity: The study, which utilized data from Project CETI demonstrated that sperm whale calls exhibit a broader range of expressivity than previously recognized, hinting at a nuanced mode of communication.
Social Dynamics: Like all marine mammals, sperm whales rely heavily on vocalizations as an integral aspect of their social interactions.
Contextual Analysis: The next phase of research aims to decipher the behavioural context surrounding sperm whale vocalizations, shedding light on their potential meanings.
About Project CETI (Cetacean Translation Initiative)
Project CETI is a non-profit, interdisciplinary scientific and conservation initiative on a mission to listen to and translate the communication of sperm whales off the island of Dominica in the Eastern Caribbean.
The Supreme Court’s ruling safeguards landowners from arbitrary government acquisition, emphasizing adherence to Article 300A, ensuring the constitutional right to property and sub-rights compliance.
Procedural Sub-Rights under Right to Property
These seven rights are foundational components of a law that is in tune with Article 300A, and the absence of one of these or some of them would render the law susceptible to challenge:
Right to Notice: Individuals must be informed about the intention to acquire their property.
Right to Be Heard: Affected individuals have the right to voice objections.
Right to a Reasoned Decision: The government must justify the acquisition with a reasoned decision.
Public Purpose Justification: Acquisitions must serve a demonstrable public purpose.
Right of Restitution or Fair Compensation: Landowners are entitled to fair compensation for their property.
Right to An Efficient and Expeditious Process: Acquisition procedures should be efficient and adhere to set timelines.
Right of Conclusion: The process concludes with the physical transfer of property; failure to take possession renders the acquisition incomplete.
Back2Basics:Right to Property in India
The Right to Property was initially a fundamental right under the Constitution of India, included in Part III (Articles 19 and 31).
Through the 44th Amendment Act of 1978, this right was removed from the list of fundamental rights. It was reclassified as a constitutional right under Article 300A.
About Article 300A:
Article 300A was introduced to the Constitution, stating that “No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law.”
Legal Framework: This implies that the government can still acquire private property, but this acquisition must be done through a law that justifies the acquisition and provides for fair compensation to the affected parties.
Current Legal Status
Not a Fundamental Right: The Right to Property is no longer a fundamental right, which means it cannot be directly enforced through the Supreme Court or High Court under Article 32 or Article 226. However, it remains a constitutional right.
Protection under Law: Any person deprived of his property under any state enactment can approach a High Court challenging the legality of the act under Article 300A.
Legal Recourse: Affected individuals have the right to legal recourse if they believe that the acquisition was not justified or that the compensation was inadequate.
Recent Judgment: Human Rights
Case Background: The judgment supported a Calcutta High Court decision that dismissed an appeal by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation regarding the acquisition of private land.
Court’s Order: The Corporation was ordered to compensate with ₹5 lakh for costs within 60 days.
Human Rights Perspective: The right to property is not only protected as a constitutional right but has also been recognized as a human right by a “Bench of Justices P.S. Narasimha and Aravind Kumar”.
Legal Interpretations and Clarifications
Justice Narasimha clarified that the phrase ‘authority of law’ in Article 300Aextends beyond the state’s power of eminent domain.
It necessitates a proper legal framework for property acquisition.
The ruling underscored that mere possession of eminent domain power and the provision of compensation do not justify compulsory acquisition if due processes are not followed.
PYQ:
[2021] What is the position of the Right to Property in India?
Q Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify your answer. (UPSC IAS/2022)
Q How the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)
Q What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of Secularism? (UPSC IAS/2019)
Prelims:
Consider the following statements: (UPSC IAS/2020) 1. The Consititution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy. 2. The Constitution of India provides for ‘judical review to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based. Which of the Statements given above is/are correct? (1) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Note4Students:
Prelims: Political Theories; Secularism
Mains: Society; Secularism;
Mentor comment: India since its Independence has been an observer of major democratic shifts, especially when it comes to the Political Parties. In the Indian kind of Parliamentary Democracy, the State is prohibited from patronizing any particular religion as the ‘State religion’ (positive secularism) and is enjoined to observe neutrality. The positive part of the Indian kind of Secularism is that it (the state) has been entrusted to regulate by Law (Procedure established by Law) or by an Executive order (head of govt.). In studies of Religion, the present modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (religious beliefs generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. However, in present Indian democratic politics, there exist two major binary contradictions – between the modern ‘secular subalterns’ (by R. Gandhi) vs. ‘Hindu subalterns’ (by PM Modi). This is for the first time that India is observing major shift in its Political Representation and the associated subalterns (subordinates).
Let’s learn
_
Why in the News?
The 2024 Indian General Election is being framed as a contest between “Subaltern Hindutva” and “Subaltern secularism”.
What is ‘Subaltern Secularism’?
The concept of “subaltern secularism” refers to the idea of secularism being embraced and practiced by marginalized or oppressed groups in society, often in contrast to the secularism associated with the elite classes or the classes that are in major power. Concerning ‘Secularism’, the “subaltern groups” are those who have been excluded from the dominant discourse on secularism, which has traditionally been associated with the English-speaking elite.
What is ‘Subaltern Hindutva’? : The “subaltern Hindutva” refers to a political strategy that mobilizes marginalized or subaltern Hindu groups by appealing to their sense of honor and identity within Hindu society. This concept emerged as a significant force in Indian politics, particularly since the 2014. Subaltern Hindutva gained traction by addressing the perceived contempt faced in the English-speaking elite circles, especially as more of them became educated.
Agenda of ‘Social Welfare’ set by‘Subaltern Secular’ Group:
On Reservation: They promised a dedicated ministry for the empowerment of the Other Backward Classes (OBC), the creation of a National Council for Social Justice, reservation in the higher judiciary for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and OBCs, and a Rohit Vemula Act for students of disadvantaged sections.
Political representation for weaker sections: Due to the lost regional subalterns in the post-Mandal era, they amended their constitution to reserve 50% of seats to the Congress Working Committee (CWC) for SCs, STs, OBCs, women, and minorities.
Legal guarantees for Minimum Income: They promised “Sampoorna Samajik Suraksha”, and a Nyuntam Aay Yojana (Nyay) as social security that will have legal guarantees for minimum income and social security for the poor.
Social and Health Security: Right to Health, pensions for Single Women, Elderly, and persons with disabilities, a Comprehensive Integrated Child Development Scheme in line with the National Food Security Act, and quality elementary schooling and maternity entitlements are promised.
How does the present ‘subaltern secularism’ differ from then ‘traditional secularism’?
By focusing on marginalized or oppressed groups: In ‘traditional secularism’, the discourse is often dominated by the elite, leading to a disconnect with the masses. On the other hand, ‘subaltern secularism’ challenges this top-down approach by advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices in shaping secular narratives and practices
By practicing secular values: ‘Traditional secularism’ tends to be associated with the privileged classes and can sometimes overlook the perspectives of marginalized communities, ‘subaltern secularism’ seeks to empower these groups by providing them with a platform to express and practice their secular beliefs within their unique socio-political contexts.
What are the implications of ‘Subaltern secularism’ for Indian Democracy?
By focusing on marginalized or oppressed groups embracing and practicing secular values, subaltern secularism challenges the traditional elite-centric narrative of secularism in India.
Brings Inclusive Representation: It emphasizes the inclusion of diverse voices and perspectives in the secular discourse, ensuring that the concerns and experiences of marginalized communities are acknowledged and addressed within the democratic framework.
Empowering the Marginalized Groups: It can empower marginalized groups by providing them with a platform to express their secular beliefs and practices, enabling them to participate more actively in the democratic process and shaping the political landscape.
Counterbalancing the Dominant powers: By offering an alternative to dominant religious and social hierarchies, subaltern secularism can serve as a counterbalance to forces that seek to marginalize or oppress certain communities based on religious or social identities.
Challenges to Existing Power Structures: Subaltern secularism challenges existing power structures by advocating for a more inclusive and equitable society, where the rights and voices of all individuals, especially those from marginalized backgrounds, are respected and protected.
Political Strategy and Mobilization: Embracing subaltern secularism as a political strategy can help opposition parties like the Indian National Congress mobilize subaltern voters who have been historically marginalized, thereby reshaping electoral dynamics and promoting a more inclusive democracy.
Conclusion: For this strategy (social welfare) to succeed, the ‘secular subalterns’ will need to build robust political campaigns aligned to its new secular thinking, breaking away from its previous characteristic timidity.
According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), heatwave conditions are affecting either the smaller regions or the larger geographical areas in India at every 26 days of the month.
What are the Heat Waves?
The “World Meteorological Organization” defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
If the maximum temperature of any place continues to be more than 45 Degree Celsius consecutively for two days, it is called a heat wave condition.
Heatwaves in India:
Regional Observations: A place with a normal temperature of 40°C in summer is not experiencing a heatwave at 42-43°C, but another location with a normal temperature of 27-28°C is in a heatwave at 35°C.
Heatwaves are common in northern, central, and eastern India during summer. Heatwaves are becoming more frequent, intense, and prolonged due to climate change.
In February 2023 (winter month for India), several regions experienced heatwaves with maximum temperatures 5 to 11 degrees higher than normal. (with a mean temperature 1.36°C higher than normal)
Predictions and Records: The outlook for heatwaves this year is grim, with predictions of prolonged heatwaves lasting 10 to 20 days in some areas, compared to the usual 4 to 8 days.
In April 2023, Odisha experienced an 18-day heatwave, the second-longest in the state’s history.
Gangetic West Bengal recorded the highest number of heatwave days in any month over the last 15 years. Eastern India recorded its warmest April ever.
Upcoming Heatwave: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecasted a fresh spell of heatwaves starting over northwest India.
Impact of Heatwaves:
Impact on Resource Availability:
Water Resources: It exacerbates water scarcity by drying up of water bodies, reducing water availability for agriculture and domestic use, and increasing competition for resources. This can lead to conflicts over water, affect irrigation practices, and impact water-dependent industries.
Energy Resources: It increases electricity demand for cooling purposes, leading to strain on power grids and potential blackouts. This can disrupt economic activities, affect productivity, and impact vulnerable populations.
Impact on Health:
Prolonged exposure to heat can lead to Dehydration and Cardiovascular and Respiratory diseases.
Rapid rises in heat gain can compromise the body’s ability to regulate temperature and can result in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia.
Health Ministry reported 264 heat-related deaths in the first six months of 2023. NCRB reported 730 heat-related deaths in the same year.
However, data collected and maintained by IMD and NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) showed a sharp decline in heat-related deaths ever since state governments and district administrations began implementing heat action plans.
Mitigation of Heatwaves:
Need to establish an Early Warning System: The Inter-Agency Coordination needs to alert residents on predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear to individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.
Increase Public Awareness and Community Outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how to protect against the extreme heat – wave through social media and advertisements. Additionally, the government needs to aware the general public through Television programs the Do’s and Dont’s for heat-related illnesses.
Conclusion: Need to improve collaboration with Non-governmental organizations and Civil society organizations to improve public spaces wherever necessary, improve water delivery systems in public areas, and other innovative measures to tackle heatwave conditions.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
