On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.
About Muzhara Movement
Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.
Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements
Details
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
Led by Mahatma Gandhi in Bihar against the tinkathia system, where peasants were forced to grow indigo on part of their land.
Resulted in the Champaran Agrarian Act (1918), which abolished oppressive practices.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
Organized in Gujarat after crop failures when the government refused to remit land revenue.
Gandhi and Sardar Patel supported peasants in withholding revenue payments until demands were met.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
Led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat against a 30% hike in land revenue.
The movement succeeded, and Patel earned the title “Sardar” for his leadership.
Tebhaga Movement (1946-47)
Initiated by the Kisan Sabha in Bengal, demanding a two-thirds share of produce for tenants instead of the customary half.
Despite being suppressed violently, it highlighted peasant rights.
Telangana Movement (1946-51)
A communist-led peasant guerrilla struggle in Andhra Pradesh against feudal landlords and the Nizam’s oppressive regime.
Achieved redistribution of land and improved
PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for:
(a) the reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third,
(b) the grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land,
(c) the uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom,
The Union Cabinet has approved the Revised National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD), enhancing its scope and funding to modernize and expand the dairy sector across India.
About theNational Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD)
It is implemented by the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying (DAHD).
The scheme has been operational since February 2014, initially targeting the development of dairy cooperatives and expanding infrastructure to support dairy activities.
In July 2021, the scheme was restructured to align with the goals of the 15th Finance Commission cycle (2021-2026), to run from 2021 to 2026 with an enhanced budget.
It focuses on providing technical and financial assistance to improve the dairy infrastructure in India, including enhancing milk procurement, processing, and marketing capabilities.
It also aims to provide training facilities for dairy farmers, improving their skills and fostering rural development.
Revised Components of NPDD Scheme:
The Revised NPDD, a Central Sector Scheme, is designed with two primary components that focus on dairy infrastructure development and cooperative strengthening:
Component A: Dairy Infrastructure Improvement
This component focuses on improving essential dairy infrastructure, such as the installation of milk chilling plants, advanced milk testing laboratories, and certification systems for quality assurance.
Special attention is given to the North Eastern Region (NER), hilly areas, and Union Territories (UTs), where support is provided for the formation of new dairy cooperative societies and the strengthening of milk procurement and processing systems.
Grant support will be provided for the formation of 2 Milk Producer Companies, ensuring a more efficient procurement system.
Component B: Dairying through Cooperatives (DTC)
This component focuses on fostering dairy development through cooperative models in partnership with the Government of Japan and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
It aims to sustainably develop dairy cooperatives, improve production, processing, and marketing infrastructure in 9 key states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
This component seeks to introduce international best practices in cooperative management and dairy technologies.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following grants direct credit assistance to the households?
1. Regional Rural Banks
2. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
3. Land Development Banks
Select the correct answer using codes given below.
New Zealand has expressed its willingness to join the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).
About Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
India launched the IPOI at the East Asia Summit in November 2019 to promote cooperation for a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
The initiative aims to strengthen maritime security, stability, and development in the region by fostering multilateral engagement among Indo-Pacific nations.
It builds on India’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) vision, which emphasizes the importance of collaborative efforts in regional maritime governance.
The IPOI operates as a voluntary, non-treaty-based arrangement, relying on existing frameworks like the EAS mechanism, ensuring flexibility and adaptability in cooperation.
The IPOI is structured around 7 key pillars, with specific countries taking the lead in each area:
Maritime Security: UK and India
Maritime Ecology: Australia and Thailand
Maritime Resources: France and Indonesia
Capacity Building and Resource Sharing: Germany
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: India and Bangladesh
Science, Technology, and Academic Cooperation: Italy and Singapore
Trade, Connectivity, and Maritime Transport: Japan and the US
Mandate of IPOI:
The IPOI seeks to establish a rules-based regional order in the Indo-Pacific, facilitating the free movement of goods, services, and people while respecting the sovereignty of nations.
The initiative enhances regional maritime security by fostering cooperation among countries to tackle shared challenges such as piracy, illegal fishing, smuggling, and other maritime crimes.
IPOI aims to boost regional capacity for disaster risk reduction and management, encouraging collaboration on disaster preparedness and response, thus minimizing the effects of natural disasters.
As a non-treaty, voluntary initiative, IPOI offers flexibility, allowing nations to participate according to common interests without adding new institutional responsibilities.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2011] The strategic significance of South-East Asia lies in its:
(a) It was the hot theatre during the Second World War.
(b) Its location between the Asian powers of China and India.,
(c) It was the arena of superpower confrontation during the Cold War period.,
(d) Its location between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and its preeminent maritime character.
This article explores the environmental costs of coal mining, India’s SO₂ emission norms, and the repeated delays in compliance. UPSC focuses on the development vs. environment debate. Questions often ask aspirants to discuss the inevitability of coal mining despite its environmental impact. They test understanding of policies, challenges, and solutions. The key is to present a balanced argument with facts. Many aspirants struggle with linking policies with real-world implications. They memorize laws but fail to connect them with economic and health impacts. Another common mistake is writing one-sided answers—either only criticizing coal mining or only defending it. A nuanced approach is essential. This article provides a structured breakdown of India’s SO₂ emission norms, challenges, and solutions. It explains why compliance delays occur and their consequences. The Back2Basics: Environmental Burden of Thermal Power section is a game-changer. It simplifies complex data and policies, making it easier to recall in exams. It also provides state-wise insights, helping you to add depth to their answers.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 1: In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for devel opment.” Discuss. [2017]
MICROTHEMES: Primary Sector
India’s Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) recently amended the Environment Protection Rules, granting thermal power plants an additional three years to comply with sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emission norms.
Origins and Evolution of SO₂ Emission Norms
India’s emission standards for thermal power plants underwent significant changes in December 2015, when the MoEFCC introduced stricter environmental regulations.
Key Features of the 2015 Norms
New SO₂ Limits – For the first time, specific norms were introduced to regulate SO₂ emissions from power plants.
Stricter Pollution Controls – The revised standards aligned with international best practices, similar to those in Australia, China, and the United States.
Compliance Deadline – Initially, plants were required to meet the new norms by December 2017. However, due to infrastructure and technological challenges, this timeline was deemed unrealistic, leading to multiple deadline extensions.
With the latest amendment, power plants now have until 2026 to implement the necessary changes to curb SO₂ emissions.
Challenges in Implementing SO₂ Emission Norms
Despite the introduction of stricter SO₂ emission norms for thermal power plants, compliance has faced multiple hurdles, leading to repeated deadline extensions.
Assumption of Low-Sulphur Coal
India’s coal naturally has low sulphur content, which should have made emission control easier.
However, instead of leveraging this advantage, the focus shifted entirely to flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) as the primary solution.
Cost and Supply Chain Constraints
High Costs – Installing FGD technology is expensive, making compliance financially challenging for many power plants.
Supply Chain Issues – Limited availability of necessary equipment and skilled professionals has further slowed down implementation.
Narrowed Policy Approach
Instead of considering multiple emission control methods tailored to India’s needs, discussions largely revolved around FGD technology’s cost and logistical challenges.
This lack of flexibility ignored alternative, cost-effective solutions that could have been better suited to India’s energy sector.
These challenges highlight the need for a more holistic and adaptable strategy to ensure effective pollution control without compromising energy security.
REASONS FOR THE DELAY
Reason for Delay
What Happened?
Why It’s a Problem?
Conflicting Viewpoints
The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) questioned nationwide uniform standards and suggested a 2035 deadline. An IIT Delhi study recommended phased implementation due to high costs.
Different agencies have differing opinions, leading to policy uncertainty and delays.
NITI Aayog’s 2024 Report
A study by CSIR-NEERI challenged the need for strict SO₂ norms, arguing that particulate matter emissions should be prioritized.
Shifting priorities create confusion and weaken the urgency of SO₂ compliance.
Lack of Scientific Consensus
Conflicting reports from different agencies have prolonged debates instead of ensuring clear, evidence-based policymaking before introducing norms in 2015.
Without a unified scientific approach, implementation remains slow and inconsistent.
Government Reluctance
Authorities have repeatedly extended deadlines instead of enforcing compliance.
Weak enforcement reduces the credibility of environmental policies.
Repeated Deadline Extensions
The MoEFCC has extended the SO₂ compliance deadline four times since 2015.
Industries take advantage of delays, further postponing emission reductions.
Contradictory Implementation
Particulate matter norms were mandated by 2024 (some plants by 2022-23), but enforcement remains weak.
Pollution control boards are not actively verifying compliance.
Regulatory Gaps
No clear public disclosures on whether thermal power plants are meeting emission norms.
Without transparency and strict oversight, compliance remains uncertain.
Economic and Public Health Costs of Delay in SO₂ Compliance
1. Rising Costs for Electricity Consumers
Cost Pass-Through Mechanism: Regulators allow thermal power plants to pass the cost of installing Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) systems onto electricity consumers.
Unjustified Consumer Costs: Even after installing FGDs, some plants do not use them due to high operating expenses. As a result, consumers pay for pollution control measures that are not effectively implemented, while air quality continues to decline.
2. Slow Progress in FGD Implementation
Current Status:
22 GW of thermal power plants have installed FGDs.
102 GW (almost half of India’s total thermal capacity) is in advanced stages of FGD installation.
Revised Compliance Deadline: The deadline for meeting SO₂ emission norms has been pushed to December 31, 2027. Given past trends, further extensions are likely.
3. Environmental Impact of Delayed Compliance
Pollution from Thermal Power Plants: These plants are a major source of SO₂ emissions, which significantly degrade air quality.
Formation of Secondary Aerosols: SO₂ reacts with other pollutants to form fine particulate matter (PM2.5), worsening pollution and health risks.
4. Public Health Crisis Due to SO₂ Emissions
Increased Risk of Respiratory and Heart Diseases: Long-term SO₂ exposure is linked to asthma, bronchitis, lung infections, heart disease, stroke, and premature deaths.
Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Groups:
Children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing conditions suffer the most from air pollution-related illnesses.
Many affected power plants are located near densely populated urban areas, exacerbating public health risks.
Delays in SO₂ compliance not only harm the environment but also burden consumers financially and create severe public health risks, especially for vulnerable populations.
Way Forward
Strict and Non-Negotiable Deadlines: The government must enforce final, non-extendable deadlines for SO₂ compliance, ensuring that thermal power plants complete FGD installations within a fixed timeframe.
Independent Monitoring and Transparency: Establish an independent regulatory body to publicly track and disclose FGD installation progress and SO₂ emission levels. This will hold power plants accountable and prevent further delays.
Targeted Financial Support for Power Producers: Introduce low-interest loans or subsidies for plants struggling with FGD installation costs, ensuring compliance without overburdening electricity consumers.
Diversified Emission Control Strategies: Promote alternative SO₂ reduction technologies, such as low-sulphur coal usage and advanced combustion techniques, instead of relying solely on FGDs. This will enhance flexibility in emission control.
Health and Environmental Impact-Based Tariff Reforms: Reform electricity tariffs to penalize non-compliant power plants while incentivizing cleaner alternatives. A portion of the revenue should be allocated to public health programs in pollution-affected areas.
#BACK2BASICS: ENVIRONMENTAL BURDEN OF THERMAL POWER
India still depends heavily on thermal power, especially coal, to meet its energy needs. While this ensures a stable electricity supply, it also comes with major environmental challenges.
Heavy Dependence on Coal – India has vast coal reserves (378.21 billion tonnes as of April 2023), with Odisha alone holding nearly 25% of them. Around 59% of the country’s total energy comes from coal.
Coal’s Role in Power Generation – In 2022-23, about 73% of India’s electricity came from fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas, making coal the backbone of power production.
High Carbon Emissions – Thermal power plants release enormous amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. In 2022, India’s electricity sector emitted over 20,794 kg of carbon per unit, worsening climate change.
Environmental Hotspots – States with high thermal power production face severe pollution, affecting air, water, and soil quality. These regions bear the brunt of emissions, making it essential to rethink energy policies for a sustainable future.
Gujarat (528 MW), Haryana (213 MW), Maharashtra (187 MW), Delhi (163 MW), Punjab (161 MW), Tamil Nadu (128 MW)
Trend Analysis
Industrially developed states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu) rely on power-rich states while facing lower pollution.
Highest Thermal Power Dependency
Tripura (96.96%), Bihar (95.57%) – Bihar generates a lot but sells much of its electricity to other states.
Issues Faced by Power-Producing States
No Compensation for Pollution – States generating electricity, especially from thermal power, bear the environmental and health costs but receive no financial compensation.
Regulatory Gaps – The tax system does not account for pollution or environmental damage from power generation. Taxes are imposed on electricity consumption and sale, not on production.
Policy Constraints:
Concurrent List Challenge – Both central and state governments control electricity policy, limiting state-level autonomy.
Ban on Additional Taxes – The Ministry of Power (Oct 2023) prohibits states from imposing extra levies on power generation.
GST Exemption – Electricity is not under GST, preventing states from earning tax revenue on power distribution.
Unfair Burden – Power-producing states face heavy pollution and resource depletion without financial support, while power-consuming states enjoy affordable electricity without sharing these costs.
Q How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar?” (2013)
Reason: The movement of non-state actors, the potential for cross-border terrorism, and the involvement of external actors in Balochistan could link to India’s internal security challenges and the complexities of managing its own borders.
Mentor’s Comment:Balochistan’s ongoing insurgency isn’t just a Pakistan issue—it’s a case study in how internal unrest, resource conflicts, and external interventions shape regional security. For UPSC aspirants, this article is crucial for understanding India’s border security challenges (GS3) and the broader geopolitical game involving China and Pakistan (GS2). The mention of the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA), the hijacking incident, and Pakistan’s military response highlights patterns of insurgency and counterinsurgency—offering insights into how states manage separatist movements, a key aspect of internal security answers. Additionally, CPEC’s impact on local communities echoes concerns about economic imperialism and sovereignty, making this a relevant talking point in India’s foreign policy discourse.
Today’s editorial discusses the challenges in Pakistan’s Balochistan province and how India can strategically respond. This analysis is relevant for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and GS Paper 3 (Internal Security).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Pakistan’s internal politics will shape the unrest in Balochistan. However, due to low trust in the military and government, meaningful talks between insurgents and the leadership seem unlikely.
What are the key reasons behind the ongoing insurgency in Balochistan?
Historical Grievances and Forced Integration (1948): Many Baloch nationalists argue that Balochistan was forcefully incorporated into Pakistan in 1948 without the consent of its people. Example: Multiple insurgencies have occurred over the decades (1950s, 1960s, 1970s, mid-2000s) due to political and economic marginalization.
Political and Socio-Economic Marginalization: The region remains underdeveloped despite its vast natural resources (coal, copper, gold, gas). The Baloch people feel excluded from governance and decision-making. Example: Even with rich gas reserves, local communities face power shortages while other provinces benefit from Balochistan’s resources.
Military Suppression and Human Rights Violations: Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies have employed heavy-handed tactics such as enforced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and crackdowns on dissent. Example: The mass protests led by Baloch women against custodial killings and forced disappearances highlight the ongoing repression.
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and Resource Exploitation: Large-scale infrastructure projects, like Gwadar Port, were developed without consulting local communities, causing displacement and demographic changes. Example: Chinese fishing trawlers have disrupted local fishermen’s livelihoods, leading to economic hardships and resentment.
Growing Insurgent Coordination and External Factors: Various Baloch insurgent groups (BLA, BLF, BRG) have improved their coordination, launching high-profile attacks on security forces and infrastructure. Example: The Baloch Raji Aajoi Sangar (BRAS) alliance has intensified attacks, including the March 2024 train hijacking and past assaults on Chinese workers and security installations.
What is China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)?
The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a $62 billion infrastructure project linking China’s Xinjiang to Pakistan’s Gwadar Port, enhancing trade, energy, and connectivity but facing security, debt, and geopolitical concerns.
How has the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) impacted the socio-political landscape of Balochistan?
Economic Disparities and Local Alienation: Despite promises of economic growth, local Baloch communities have seen minimal benefits from CPEC projects, leading to resentment. Example: Gwadar Port’s development has largely benefited Chinese and Pakistani investors, while local fishermen face economic hardships due to Chinese deep-sea fishing trawlers.
Increased Security Presence and Military Crackdown: To safeguard CPEC projects, Pakistan has intensified military operations in Balochistan, leading to human rights abuses and forced displacements. Example: The establishment of the Special Security Division (SSD) for CPEC has led to increased military checkpoints and reports of enforced disappearances.
Rise in Insurgency and Targeted Attacks: Baloch insurgent groups view CPEC as a form of exploitation, leading to increased attacks on Chinese nationals and Pakistani security forces. Example: The Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) has carried out multiple attacks, including the 2022 suicide bombing in Karachi targeting Chinese teachers associated with CPEC projects.
Demographic Changes and Marginalization of Locals: Large-scale infrastructure projects have led to an influx of outsiders, creating fears among Baloch communities about losing their cultural and economic dominance. Example: The settlement of non-Baloch workers in Gwadar has fueled protests, with locals demanding control over job opportunities and land rights.
Environmental Degradation and Livelihood Losses: Industrialization and large-scale construction under CPEC have led to pollution, water shortages, and destruction of marine ecosystems, affecting local livelihoods. Example: Gwadar’s water crisis has worsened due to excessive resource extraction for CPEC-related industries, forcing residents to rely on water tankers.
How can India leverage this situation to its advantage?
Diplomatic Advocacy for Human Rights: India can raise concerns over human rights violations in Balochistan at international forums like the UN and human rights organizations, building pressure on Pakistan. Example: Indian Prime Minister’s 2016 Independence Day speech highlighted Balochistan’s struggles, signaling diplomatic support.
Strategic Engagement with Baloch Leadership: Engaging with Baloch exiled leaders and activists can strengthen India’s regional influence and counter Pakistan’s narrative on Kashmir. Example: India has provided a platform to Baloch leaders like Brahumdagh Bugti, who has sought asylum in India.
Intelligence and Strategic Operations: India can enhance intelligence-sharing and non-conventional tactics to counter threats emanating from Pakistan, especially along its western borders. Example: Reports suggest Indian agencies have been monitoring CPEC activities and Pakistan’s military actions in Balochistan.
Economic and Cultural Soft Power: India can support Baloch diaspora communities through scholarships, cultural exchanges, and humanitarian assistance to build goodwill. Example: Media outlets in India have amplified Baloch issues, increasing global awareness of Pakistan’s suppression.
Countering CPEC’s Strategic Influence: By highlighting the environmental and economic concerns of Balochistan, India can strengthen its ties with countries skeptical of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: India’s opposition to CPEC, citing sovereignty concerns over PoK, aligns with global criticisms of China’s debt-trap diplomacy, helping form strategic alliances.
Way forward:
International Advocacy and Strategic Alliances: India should continue raising the Balochistan issue in global forums while strengthening diplomatic ties with nations wary of CPEC and China’s growing influence. Example: Collaborating with the Quad (US, Japan, Australia) and EU on human rights and regional security concerns.
Balanced Engagement with Baloch Leadership: India can discreetly support Baloch nationalist movements through political dialogue, humanitarian aid, and economic initiatives, ensuring a calibrated approach without direct intervention. Example: Facilitating educational opportunities and cultural exchanges for Baloch youth to build long-term goodwill.
Back to Basics: Importance of Balochistan
Strategic Location – Balochistan provides Pakistan access to the Arabian Sea, hosting Gwadar Port, a key part of CPEC, enhancing regional trade and connectivity.
Natural Resources – It holds rich mineral reserves, including natural gas, coal, gold, and copper (e.g., Reko Diq gold-copper project).
Energy Hub – Balochistan is crucial for Pakistan’s energy security, with major gas fields like Sui Gas Field, supplying the country since 1952.
Defense and Security – The province borders Iran and Afghanistan, making it vital for border security and counterinsurgency operations.
Fisheries and Maritime Importance – Its 1,000 km coastline supports Pakistan’s fishing industry, with Gwadar’s deep-sea port boosting maritime trade potential.
With the rise in demand for STEM research, higher education needs a refresh—better infrastructure, funding, and more. In GS-2, UPSC often zooms in on specific trends, like academic independence, rather than broad challenges. So, understanding how STEM research links up with higher education is key. This article breaks down these connections with data and examples. Plus, Back2Basics covers the core challenges in higher education, so you won’t miss a thing.
PYQs Anchoring:
Q) GS2: Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students. Discuss in light of the growing challenges. (UPSC CSE 2014)
Q) GS2: The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country? Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2015)
Microthemes: Education
Note4students: Talk about the PYQs inference in this section
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India’s higher education system faces a crucial challenge: aligning graduate skills with industry needs. While new institutions continue to emerge, quality, particularly at the undergraduate level, remains an area of concern. A targeted approach is essential—one that prioritizes pedagogical improvements, stronger research-teaching collaborations, and a more relevant curriculum to meet global standards.
With this context, the table below outlines the core challenges within India’s higher education system and the strategic steps needed to address them effectively.
Essential Components of Rising STEM Research and Higher Education
With surging STEM demands, education needs to adapt. This is required to foster innovation, practical skills, and research-ready graduates. Key strategies needed to make this shift include the following:.
Key Strategies
Description and Connection
Data/Examples
Focus on Early STEM Engagement
Programs targeting K-12 students build early STEM foundations and increase STEM proficiency, addressing talent shortages and inspiring more students to pursue STEM careers.
– The U.S. saw a 27% increase in STEM enrollment in elementary programs over the past five years, with initiatives like NASA’s STEM engagement program, which reaches over 1 million students yearly, driving interest in technical subjects from an early age.
Advanced STEM Curriculum
Adapting curricula to incorporate interdisciplinary approaches, practical lab work, and cutting-edge technologies equips students with the hands-on experience needed to address complex, cross-functional challenges in science and technology.
– Stanford’s Bioengineering program blends traditional life sciences with engineering disciplines, and MIT’s lab courses now integrate robotics and machine learning with traditional sciences.
Digital and Hybrid Learning Models
Implementing online, virtual, and hybrid learning models allows more flexibility and access to STEM education, especially for underserved and rural populations, supporting broader STEM participation and addressing geographic education disparities.
– In 2021, the Khan Academy’s free, online courses were used by over 20 million U.S. students and teachers, providing equitable access to advanced STEM topics through digital learning resources.
Industry Partnerships
Collaborations between academia and industry expose students to real-world challenges and drive curriculum relevance, preparing students for high-demand jobs in emerging fields like AI, biotech, and data science.
– Google’s AI Research program partners with top universities to support research in areas such as AI ethics and neural networks, enhancing real-world application learning for students.
Increased Funding for STEM Research
Greater funding drives innovation, enabling institutions to provide resources, recruit skilled faculty, and support cutting-edge research projects, thus enhancing the overall quality of STEM education.
– In 2022, the National Science Foundation (NSF) committed $8.5 billion toward U.S. STEM research, marking a 13% increase from the previous year.
Government Initiatives and Policies
Policy reforms and government initiatives support STEM development through tax incentives, research grants, and workforce development programs, creating a supportive environment for STEM growth and aligning education with national and economic priorities.
– India’s “Atal Innovation Mission” launched 5,441 Atal Tinkering Labs in 2022, equipping schools with resources to foster science and tech innovation among students, while the EU earmarked €95 billion for STEM research under the Horizon Europe initiative.
Government Initiatives Related to the Higher Education System in India:
Initiative
Description
Key Facts
National Initiative for School Heads’ and Teachers’ Holistic Advancement (NISHTHA)
A training initiative to improve skills of school heads and teachers across all levels, including Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE).
Over 32,648 Master Trainers certified; this large-scale training helps align teacher development with the holistic goals of NEP 2020.
PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development)
An autonomous body established under NEP 2020 to improve and standardize assessment across school boards in India.
Includes State Educational Achievement Survey (SEAS) for assessing student competencies, and Competency-based Assessments and Holistic Progress Cards (HPCs) for broader student evaluation.
National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020)
Major reform in education, focusing on holistic and competency-based curriculum from foundational to secondary education.
National Curriculum Framework for Foundational Stage (NCF FS) launched for classes I & II in 2023; National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) released in 2023, promoting competency-based education.
Budget 2024-25: Higher Education Loan Scheme
A new loan scheme announced to support students pursuing higher education by making it more accessible and affordable.
Provides loans up to ₹10 lakh for one lakh students, expanding access to higher education in alignment with the NEP’s focus on affordability.
Institutions of Eminence (IoE) Scheme
A Ministry of Education initiative launched in 2018 to grant greater autonomy to select institutions for promoting global academic standards.
Targets 20 institutions for academic excellence and innovation; aims to develop India’s higher education institutions into globally recognized centers.
Digital Initiatives
Digital platforms for advancing learning and resource access across all educational levels.
SWAYAM offers online courses from school to postgraduate levels, supporting self-paced learning; National Digital Library of India provides extensive educational resources for students and educators.
Way Forward
As global demands for STEM research and innovation rise, India’s higher education system must evolve to nurture a robust research environment that meets industry standards. The following strategic steps outline how India can transform its higher education to better support STEM excellence.
Industry-Academia Sync: Get real-world ready with initiatives like faculty industry sabbaticals, advisory boards for curriculum updates, joint R&D centers, and required internships. Singapore’s partnerships and Germany’s hands-on apprenticeships are proof this works.
Teaching Upgrade: Shift to experiential learning with mandatory teaching certifications, Centers of Teaching Excellence, and regular feedback. Finland’s trust-based, teacher-focused model and the Netherlands’ problem-based learning set great examples.
Real-Time Quality Assurance: Use AI for ongoing quality checks and focus on employable skills, not just grades. China’s “Double First Class” project shows the benefits of continuous quality monitoring.
Student Support: Set up career counseling, mental wellness programs, and innovation labs. Israel’s universities drive student innovation, and a 2023 global study found 50% of students rate mental health support as essential.
Global Collaboration: Team up with global institutions via joint degrees, faculty exchange, and shared research projects. Singapore’s corporate-university labs and China’s international partnerships highlight the power of going global.
Regional Language Focus: Make content accessible with bilingual resources, standard technical terms in local languages, and regional language research journals. Schools like Eklavya in India show that learning in familiar languages boosts understanding.
Skill-Building Pathways: Offer modular certifications, professional-grade skill labs, and allow students to shift between vocational and academic tracks. Finland’s and Germany’s systems show that integrating hands-on training with education prepares students for real jobs.
#BACK2BASICS
India’s Higher Education System: Core Challenges
Challenge
Description
Data/Facts
Quality vs. Quantity
Expansion has focused on quantity over quality, especially in private institutions, leading to diluted standards and poor infrastructure.
India has 1,043 universities and 42,343 colleges (AISHE), with 30% unaccredited (NAAC) in violation of NEP 2020. Only 45% of engineering graduates meet industry standards.
Weak Research and Innovation
Low funding and poor facilities limit research quality, leading to emphasis on quantity over quality and papers in predatory journals.
India spends 0.7% of GDP on research, compared to China (2.4%) and the US (3.5%). Patent filings in 2023: India (467,918), China (7.7 million), US (945,571).
Faculty Shortages
Shortage of qualified faculty, with slow hiring processes and low pay deterring talent. Many existing faculty lack training and industry experience.
30% of teaching positions vacant in central universities; lack of industry-aligned training impacts education quality.
Industry-Academia Disconnect
Outdated curricula fail to meet industry needs, resulting in graduates who require extensive retraining to be job-ready.
ILO 2023 report: 47% of Indian workers (62% of females) are underqualified for their jobs, adding costs for employers.
Funding Shortfalls
Public universities face chronic underfunding, relying heavily on student fees, with a recent drop in higher education budget allocations.
The 2024-25 budget is set to decline by 17%, and UGC funding is reduced by 61% (PRS). Infrastructure suffers as a result.
Digital Divide
Most universities lack basic digital infrastructure, while elite institutions have advanced resources, widening educational inequality.
60% of Indian students lack online learning access (Azim Premji Foundation, 2021), a gap exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic.
Mental Health Crisis
Inadequate mental health support in universities, with students facing high stress from academic and career pressures.
TimelyMD 2023 report: 50% of college students cite mental health as a major stressor, impacting well-being and academics.
Weak Entrepreneurship Ecosystem
Limited support for entrepreneurship and innovation, with few universities offering incubation centers or mentorship.
India’s Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurship (TEA) rate stands at only 11.5% (2022-23), showing a lack of ecosystem support.
Language Barriers
Language barriers hinder access, especially for students from rural or non-English-speaking backgrounds.
Tribal students in Andhra Pradesh struggle with classes in Hindi instead of English or Telugu, limiting academic access.
Startup founders publicly claimed to support gig workers’ rights but secretly resist laws that would actually protect them.
What is the nature of employment in urban labour chowks and mazdoor mandis?
Daily Wage and Informal Work: Workers gather at labour chowks every morning, hoping to be hired for the day. Example: Construction workers in Delhi’s Kashmere Gate labour chowk wait for contractors to hire them for masonry or painting jobs.
Highly Competitive and Unstable: Large numbers of workers compete for limited jobs, often accepting lower wages out of desperation. Example: In Mumbai’s Dadar labour market, carpenters and plumbers rush to secure work before others.
Exploitative Hiring Practices: Employers and thekedars (middlemen) negotiate wages, often offering the lowest possible rates. Example: In Ahmedabad, daily wage workers in textile markets are hired at rates well below the minimum wage.
Lack of Social Security and Benefits: No job security, health benefits, or pensions; workers are paid only for the day they work. Example: Brick kiln workers in Hyderabad have no accident coverage despite working in hazardous conditions.
Piece-Rate and Task-Based Payment: Workers are often paid per unit of work completed rather than a fixed wage. Example: In Chennai’s wholesale vegetable markets, loaders are paid per sack carried rather than for the number of hours worked.
Who benefits the most from the presence of thekedars in the labour market?
Employers Benefit from Lower Labour Costs: Thekedars help employers negotiate lower wages and better terms by creating a competitive environment among workers. This allows employers to maximize profits by minimizing labor costs. Example: In urban labour chowks, employers can select workers at the lowest possible wage due to the high competition among workers, which benefits the employer financially.
Thekedars Themselves Profit from Commissions: Thekedars earn commissions or fees from both workers and employers for their services. This financial gain is a direct benefit to them. Example: In the construction industry, thekedars often receive a percentage of the workers’ wages as a commission for facilitating the hiring process.
How do digital platforms replicate the role of thekedars in modern gig work?
Acting as Middlemen Without Responsibility: Just like thekedars, digital platforms connect workers to employers but do not recognize them as formal employees, avoiding obligations like job security or benefits. Example: Ride-hailing apps like Uber and Ola classify drivers as “partners” rather than employees, denying them benefits like PF or health insurance.
Downward Wage Bidding: Workers must accept the lowest possible payment, as platforms set rates based on demand and supply, just like the daily wage auctions in mazdoor mandis. Example: Food delivery workers on Swiggy and Zomato have seen their per-delivery payments decrease over time as competition increases.
Algorithm-Controlled Work Allocation: Platforms use algorithms to decide which worker gets a task, replacing the manual selection process of thekedars. Workers have no bargaining power over wages or work hours. Example: Freelancers on Upwork or Fiverr depend on algorithms that prioritize clients, making workers compete for lower pay.
Lack of Collective Bargaining: Gig workers are isolated, just like daily wagers in urban labour markets, making unionization and collective bargaining difficult. Example: Amazon Flex workers have no union representation and must accept whatever delivery rates the company offers.
Exploitative Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to get work, forcing them to accept low wages and poor conditions, similar to how thekedars exploit labour desperation. Example: “Insta Maids” service offers house help for ₹49 per hour, making workers compete for ratings instead of fair wages.
What are the challenges for gig workers in India?
Lack of Job Security and Social Benefits: Gig workers are classified as “independent contractors,” denying them benefits like health insurance, provident fund, and paid leave. Example: Delivery partners for Swiggy and Zomato receive no compensation if injured while working.
Low and Unstable Earnings: Payment structures are unpredictable, with fluctuating wages and reduced per-task payouts over time, making financial planning difficult. Example:Uber and Ola drivers often struggle as their earnings depend on peak-hour incentives, which companies frequently revise.
Exploitation Through Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to secure jobs, forcing them to accept unreasonable customer demands and work long hours. Example:Urban Company service providers risk lower earnings or job loss if they receive poor ratings from customers, regardless of actual service quality.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
Code on Social Security, 2020: This legislation brings gig and platform workers under the ambit of social security schemes for the first time. Example: The law mandates that gig workers be eligible for benefits like life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, and old-age protection.
E-Shram Portal (2021): A national database for unorganized workers, including gig workers, was launched to provide them with targeted benefits. Example: Registered workers receive a Universal Account Number (UAN) and accident insurance coverage under the Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana.
State-Level Welfare Initiatives: Several state governments have taken initiatives to support gig workers. Example: Rajasthan introduced the Platform-Based Gig Workers Welfare Board (2023) to ensure social security benefits.
NITI Aayog Report on Gig Economy (2022): The report highlights the need for policy interventions, including skill development, financial inclusion, and social security for gig workers. Example: Recommendations were made to extend benefits like Employee Provident Fund (EPF) and health insurance to gig workers.
PLI Scheme and Skill Development Programs: The government has introduced skill development programs for gig workers, especially in sectors like logistics and e-commerce. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) helps gig workers upskill and transition into better-paying roles.
Way forward:
Strengthening Legal Protections & Social Security: Enforce minimum wages, accident insurance, and pension benefits for gig and informal workers. Example: Amend the Code on Social Security, 2020 to ensure mandatory employer contributions.
Collective Bargaining & Fair Work Standards: Facilitate unionization and introduce fair algorithmic policies to prevent wage suppression. Example: Implement transparent rating and payment systems on digital platforms like Swiggy and Uber.
Mains PYQ:
Q Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (UPSC 2021)
Reason: The article explores “insta-commerce,” where gig workers, including women, sell via social media. While the PYQ focuses on empowerment, the article highlights challenges like job insecurity, unfair wages, and the lack of grievance redressal. This perspective offers a nuanced view of the gig economy’s impact, including its dual role in both enabling and potentially disempowering women.
Drug abuse in Kerala has increased over the past three years. In March, the Kerala High Court raised concerns about drug mafias, and the Governor met university officials to address student drug problems.
What are the key factors contributing to the surge in drug abuse cases in Kerala over the past three years?
Increased Drug Trafficking via Coastal Routes: Kerala’s long coastline makes it a transit hub for international drug cartels. Example: In 2023, a Sri Lankan boat carrying 200 kg of heroin was intercepted off the Kerala coast.
Rise of Synthetic & Party Drugs Among Youth: Increased use of MDMA, LSD, and methamphetamine, particularly in urban areas and college campuses. Example: In 2022, over 1,000 students were caught in possession of synthetic drugs in Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram.
Easy Availability Through Darknet & Courier Services: Online platforms and encrypted messaging apps have facilitated drug trade. Example: In 2024, Kerala police busted a drug network using dark web transactions and fake delivery addresses.
Widespread Consumption Beyond Urban Centers: Unlike other states, drug abuse is reported in both rural and urban districts. Example: Every district in Kerala recorded at least 500 NDPS cases in 2022, indicating a statewide crisis.
Limited Focus on Major Suppliers & Traffickers: 94% of NDPS cases in Kerala are for possession, with only 6% related to trafficking. Example: While thousands of consumers are arrested, major drug syndicates continue operations largely unchecked.
What is the situation of drug abuse at all India levels?
Steady Rise in NDPS Cases Across India: Cases under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act have been increasing, though some states show a decline in recent years. Example: India recorded over 1.5 lakh NDPS cases in 2023, with a significant rise in Punjab, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
Punjab & Northeast Among the Worst-Affected Regions: Punjab has long struggled with heroin addiction, while the Northeast is affected due to drug trafficking from Myanmar’s Golden Triangle. Example: In 2024, Punjab recorded 30 cases per lakh people, the second-highest after Kerala.
Shift from Natural to Synthetic & Pharmaceutical Drugs: Synthetic drugs (MDMA, LSD, Meth), opioids, and prescription medicines (Tramadol, Codeine-based syrups) are increasingly being abused. Example: In Mumbai, over 60% of drug-related arrests in 2023 involved synthetic drugs rather than traditional narcotics like cannabis.
Growing Use of Dark Web & Digital Payments for Drug Trade: Cryptocurrency transactions, darknet markets, and courier services are being used for drug sales. Example: In 2023, the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) dismantled an online drug syndicate operating across multiple Indian states.
State-Wise Variation in Drug Trafficking & Consumption Patterns: While Punjab & Northeast face opioid crises, Mumbai & Bengaluru see more party drug use, and Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh have rising cannabis-related arrests. Example: In 2022, Bengaluru accounted for 63% of Karnataka’s NDPS cases, highlighting an urban concentration of drug abuse.
What are the steps taken by the Government?
Strengthening Law Enforcement & Anti-Drug Operations: The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) and state police have intensified crackdowns on drug trafficking networks. Example: In 2023, the NCB seized over 2000 kg of drugs nationwide, including heroin and synthetic substances, in coordinated raids.
Expansion of Rehabilitation & De-addiction Programs: The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment runs the Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (NMBA) to promote awareness and rehabilitation. Example: Over 370 de-addiction centres were established under NMBA in states like Punjab, Maharashtra, and Kerala.
Use of Technology & AI for Drug Surveillance: Government agencies monitor dark web transactions, cryptocurrency payments, and social media platforms to track drug deals. Example: In 2023, the NCB cracked a crypto-drug syndicate that was smuggling MDMA and LSD through online orders.
Public Awareness & Educational Campaigns: Schools, colleges, and workplaces are conducting anti-drug sensitization programs to reduce youth drug abuse. Example: Kerala’s ‘Love-a-Thon’ campaign in universities aims to educate students on the dangers of substance abuse.
International Cooperation & Border Security Measures: India has increased cooperation with Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Iran to curb cross-border drug trafficking. Example: In 2023, the Indian Navy intercepted a Pakistan-based heroin shipment worth ₹1,200 crore in the Arabian Sea.
Way forward:
Targeted Crackdown on Drug Supply Chains: Strengthen intelligence-led operations against major traffickers, enhance coastal & border security, and increase inter-agency coordination to dismantle drug syndicates.
Comprehensive Prevention & Rehabilitation Strategy: Expand school-based drug education, integrate mental health support in de-addiction programs, and enhance community-based rehabilitation to address both urban and rural drug abuse.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco-terrorism. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question is potentially linked with narco-terrorism. The measures suggested to counter narco-terrorism would also be relevant to addressing the drug problem in Kerala, especially if it involves organized crime and cross-border elements.
Acts as a watchdog over government financial expenditure.
Plays a critical role in maintaining financial accountability in governance.
Appointment and Term
Appointed by the President of India under a warrant.
Serves a 6-year term or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
Must take an oath to uphold the Constitution and perform duties impartially.
Removal can only occur for misbehaviour or incapacity, through a special majority in both Houses of Parliament.
Independence of the CAG
Independence from the government: Ineligible for any government office after leaving office.
Salary and Expenses: Equal to a Supreme Court judge, with expenses charged to the Consolidated Fund of India.
No Ministerial Representation: No minister can represent the CAG or assume responsibility for their actions.
Issues with the Appointment of the CAG
The current process for appointing the CAG is seen as problematic due to the centralized control by the Union government.
The CAG is appointed by the President on the advice of the government, raising concerns about potential executive influence over a key independent body.
Critics argue that this process compromises the CAG’s independence and calls for a neutral selection committee involving the Prime Minister, Leader of the Opposition, and Chief Justice of India.
This would ensure that the CAG is appointed transparently and impartially, free from political interference.
Historically, the lack of clear guidelines in Article 148 regarding the CAG’s appointment has allowed executive interference, much like the early years of judicial appointments.
Supreme Court interventions have already reformed appointment processes for bodies like the Election Commission and Central Vigilance Commission, and similar reforms for the CAG are necessary to protect its autonomy.
[UPSC 2012] In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)?
1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency.
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. CAG reports are available to the Parliamentary Committees.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
The 30th Session of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has officially commenced in Kingston, Jamaica, on March 17, 2025.
About the International Seabed Authority (ISA)
ISA is an autonomous international organization created under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to Part XI of the UNCLOS.
It regulates and manages mineral-resource activities in the “Area”—the seabed and ocean floor beyond national jurisdictions.
It is headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica
It has 168 Member States, including India, and the European Union
Mandate:
Regulate exploration and exploitation of deep-sea minerals.
Protect the marine environment from harmful effects of seabed activities.
Encourage marine scientific research and promote the sustainable use of oceans.
The ISA manages about 54% of the world’s oceans, ensuring activities are carried out for the benefit of all humankind and to protect the marine environment.
Role in Regulating Deep-Sea Mining
The ISA is responsible for enforcing the Mining Code, which governs all mineral activities in the International Seabed Area. It includes:
Regulation of Exploration: Grants exploration licenses for assessing mineral deposits in deep-sea areas, ensuring scientifically responsible activities.
Environmental Protection: Sets environmental standards and ensures impact assessments before mining starts.
Development of Mining Code: Continuously updates the Mining Code to address scientific, technological, and environmental concerns.
Oversight and Compliance: Monitors activities of contractors and member states, ensuring regulatory compliance and environmental safeguards.
India and ISA
In January 2024, India submitted two exploration applications in the Indian Ocean for:
Polymetallic sulphides in the Carlsberg Ridge.
Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount.
India holds two active exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules and sulphides in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and Ridge.
India seeks access to critical minerals for energy transition and technological growth, balancing economic needs with sustainable practices.
India actively participates in Mining Code negotiations, aligning its actions with international legal standards and environmental protocols.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) was recently awarded the prestigious Digital Transformation Award 2025 by Central Banking, a recognition of its groundbreaking digital initiatives, Sarthi and Pravaah.
About Sarthi System
The Sarthi system was launched in January 2023 by the RBI with the goal of digitizing all internal workflows within the organization.
This initiative aimed to reduce the reliance on paper-based processes and enhance operational efficiency across the RBI.
Key features include:
It can securely store and share documents among the 13,500 employees spread across 40+ locations.
It also improves record management and provides enhanced data analysis capabilities through reports and dashboards.
Additionally, Sarthi automates internal processes such as task tracking, approvals, and document management, streamlining operations and improving collaboration between departments.
To ensure that employees are proficient in using the system, an online training platform, called Sarthi Pathshala, was launched alongside in-person training.
Sarthi Mitras, who are designated experts within RBI offices, assist colleagues in navigating and resolving issues related to the system.
About Pravaah System
Building on the success of Sarthi, the RBI introduced the Pravaah system in May 2024.
Its primary purpose is to facilitate external users in submitting regulatory applications digitally to the RBI.
This platform has greatly enhanced the efficiency and transparency of the application submission process.
Key features include:
It integrates seamlessly with the Sarthi database, enabling smooth processing of regulatory documents.
It supports more than 70 different regulatory applications, significantly improving the speed and accuracy of submissions.
It is equipped with centralized cybersecurity measures and digital tracking capabilities, which provide real-time monitoring of applications for both applicants and RBI managers.
It has contributed to an 80% increase in monthly applications, marking a significant achievement in reducing delays associated with traditional, paper-based systems and streamlining the overall process.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements in respect of the digital rupee:
1. It is a sovereign currency issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in alignment with its monetary policy.
2. It appears as a liability on the RBI’s balance sheet. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A recent study led by Stanford University chemist Richard Zare has introduced a novel perspective on the origins of life on Earth, providing an alternative to the well-known Miller-Urey hypothesis.
About the Miller-Urey Hypothesis
The Miller-Urey hypothesis emerged from an experiment conducted in 1952 by chemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey.
It sought to simulate the conditions of early Earth to understand how life could have originated.
They used a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen, gases believed to be present in the early Earth’s atmosphere.
The setup also included an electric spark to simulate lightning, which they hypothesized could have played a role in the formation of organic compounds.
Results: The experiment successfully demonstrated that organic molecules, like amino acids, essential for life, could form when an electrical spark (simulating lightning) was applied to the gas mixture.
Impact and Debate:
The experiment was a landmark in understanding life’s chemical origins.
However, over time, critics argued that real lightning would have been rare and mostly occurred over open ocean, where organic compounds would have been quickly dispersed.
This led to the questioning of lightning as the primary trigger for life’s origins.
Life on Earth and the Role of ‘Microlightning’ in Water Droplets
The Stanford study shows that when water droplets divide, they develop opposing electrical charges—larger droplets become positively charged, and smaller droplets become negatively charged.
When these oppositely charged droplets come close together, tiny sparks (termed micro-lightning) can leap between them, mimicking the electrical phenomena that occur in thunderstorms.
Experimental Evidence:
In the experiment, when water sprays were mixed with nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia, they produced organic compounds like glycine and uracil, similar to those in the Miller-Urey experiment.
Microlightning from water sprays can therefore generate organic compounds, providing a plausible and common natural process for the origin of life.
These microlightning events could have been far more common and accessible than lightning strikes, offering an alternative mechanism for the generation of life-building organic molecules.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?
Q Discuss the consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2023)
Reason: This question directly addresses the impact of climate change on food security.
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the strategy of consequences of climate change on the food security (2023) and the ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem (2017).
Heat waves lead to health crises, crop losses, water shortages, and increased energy demand. In 2023, severe heat in India caused record-breaking temperatures, affecting wheat production in Punjab and Haryana. For example, The Indian state of Bihar had the highest number of heat wave days in 2023, with a total of 18 days. This was followed by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, both having experienced a total of 15 days of heat waves that year.
Today’s editorial discusses the impact of Extreme heat in India, providing valuable insights for GS Paper 3 in UPSC Mains answer writing.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
This year, India experienced its hottest February in 124 years. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has warned that March will also be hotter than usual, with more days of extreme heat.
What are the major wheat-producing states in India?
Uttar Pradesh is the largest wheat producer, contributing approximately 31.77% to India’s total wheat output. In the crop year 2023-24, it produced around 35.34 million tonnes of wheat from an area of 9.53 million hectares. Example: Districts like Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, and Agra are significant contributors, utilizing both traditional and modern agricultural practices to achieve high yields.
Madhya Pradesh ranks second, accounting for about 20.98% of the national production. The state produced approximately 22.58 million tonnes in the same crop year. Example: The Malwa plateau region, particularly districts like Indore and Ujjain, benefits from black soil and moderate temperatures, which are conducive to wheat cultivation.
Punjab Known as the “Granary of India,” contributes around 13.87% to India’s wheat output, with a production of about 17.74 million tonnes. Example: Major districts such as Amritsar and Ludhiana utilize advanced farming techniques and well-developed irrigation systems to maintain high productivity levels.
Why is wheat primarily grown in these regions?
Agro-Climatic Conditions – These states have a cool winter and warm summer, which is ideal for wheat cultivation. The Rabi season (sown in November-December, harvested in March-April) aligns perfectly with the climate. Example: The Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh benefits from moderate temperatures that support high wheat yields.
Fertile Soil – These regions have alluvial and black soil, which retain moisture and provide essential nutrients for wheat growth. The soil is well-suited for irrigated farming. Example: The Indo-Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab have deep, fertile alluvial soil, which supports extensive wheat cultivation.
Irrigation Facilities – These states have well-developed canal and groundwater irrigation systems, ensuring a stable water supply for wheat crops, which require controlled irrigation. Example:Punjab’s extensive canal network, supported by the Bhakra Nangal Dam, ensures year-round irrigation, enabling high wheat productivity.
Why is extreme heat during the wheat harvest season a serious concern for India’s food security and economy?
Reduced Wheat Yield: Extreme heat accelerates wheat ripening, leading to shorter grain-filling periods and lighter grains. This results in lower overall production, affecting food availability. Example: In 2022, a sudden heatwave in March reduced India’s wheat output from the projected 111 million tonnes to ~107 million tonnes.
Lower Grain Quality: High temperatures increase protein content but reduce starch accumulation, making wheat harder and affecting its milling quality. Example: Farmers in Punjab and Haryana reported lower market prices in 2023 due to poor grain quality caused by excessive heat.
Impact on Food Security: Wheat is a staple for a significant portion of India’s population. Production shortfalls can lead to food shortages, disproportionately affecting low-income communities. The 2025 heatwave poses a serious threat to wheat and rice production, potentially leading to a 6-10% decline, thereby jeopardizing food security for millions.
Economic Losses for Farmers: Heat stress forces farmers to spend more on irrigation, fertilizers, and pest control, increasing costs while reducing yields, leading to financial distress. Example: Farmers in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan faced heavy losses in 2023 due to unexpected temperature spikes during the grain-filling stage.
Disruptions in Procurement & Trade: Lower production impacts government wheat procurement, affecting stock availability for schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and exports. Example: India had to ban wheat exports in 2022 to ensure domestic supply, disrupting global markets and trade agreements.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
Minimum Support Price (MSP) – The government announces a minimum support price for wheat every year to ensure farmers get a fair price and are encouraged to produce more. Example: In 2023-24, the MSP for wheat was ₹2,275 per quintal, benefiting farmers in states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Subsidized Inputs – The government provides subsidies on seeds, fertilizers, and electricity to make wheat farming more affordable and increase productivity. Example: Under the National Food Security Mission (NFSM), high-yield variety (HYV) seeds and soil nutrients are distributed to farmers in states like Madhya Pradesh.
Irrigation Development – Investment in major irrigation projects has improved water availability, reducing dependence on erratic rainfall. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) has helped expand irrigation in wheat-producing states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
Research & Development (R&D) – The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and agricultural universities develop climate-resilient, high-yield wheat varieties to enhance productivity. Example: The DBW-187 wheat variety, developed by ICAR, has helped increase yields in states like Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
Procurement & Storage Infrastructure – The Food Corporation of India (FCI) and state agencies procure large quantities of wheat to ensure food security and stabilize market prices. Example: In 2023, FCI procured over 26 million tonnes of wheat, mainly from Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, ensuring buffer stock availability.
What adaptation and mitigation strategies can policymakers implement to protect wheat crops from rising temperatures? (Way forward)
Development of Heat-Resistant Wheat Varieties: Traditional wheat varieties are vulnerable to heat stress, reducing yield and quality. Example: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed HD 3385, a climate-resilient wheat variety with better heat tolerance, which is expected to perform well in rising temperatures.
Shifting Sowing Dates and Crop Calendars: Adjusting the sowing period can help wheat plants escape extreme heat during critical growth phases. Example: The Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has recommended advancing wheat sowing to mid-October instead of November to allow crops to mature before peak heat in March-April.
Improved Irrigation and Water Management: Heat stress increases water loss from soil and plants, requiring efficient irrigation. Example: The “Per Drop More Crop” scheme under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) promotes micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) to optimize water use in wheat-growing states like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
Promoting Conservation Agriculture Practices: Practices like zero tillage and residue mulching help retain soil moisture and lower soil temperature. Example:Zero tillage wheat in Haryana and Punjab has shown 5-10% higher yields and reduced water usage compared to conventional plowing methods.
Climate Forecasting and Early Warning Systems: Advanced weather predictions help farmers plan for extreme heat events. Example: The Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva (GKMS) provides real-time agro-advisories, warning farmers about heatwaves and recommending protective measures like additional irrigation and mulching.
The Prime Minister of India may allow the Taliban regime to appoint a new envoy for its embassy in New Delhi.
What are the key reasons behind India’s increasing engagement with the Taliban despite international concerns?
Strategic Influence in Afghanistan: India aims to maintain a presence in Afghanistan to safeguard its long-term geopolitical interests.Example: India reopened its embassy in Kabul in June 2022, ensuring diplomatic engagement.
Countering Pakistan’s Diminishing Influence: As Taliban-Pakistan relations sour, India sees an opportunity to reduce Islamabad’s sway over Kabul. Example: The Taliban’s refusal to act against Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has strained ties with Pakistan, creating space for India.
Competing with China’s Expanding Role: China has accepted a Taliban envoy and is integrating Afghanistan into the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: China became the first country to accept a Taliban-appointed ambassador in 2023, prompting India to reconsider its approach.
Ensuring Regional Security and Counterterrorism: A stable Afghanistan is crucial to preventing it from becoming a hub for anti-India terror groups. Example: India seeks Taliban cooperation in curbing ISIS-K and groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) that threaten Indian interests.
Economic and Humanitarian Interests: Engaging with the Taliban allows India to continue developmental projects and provide humanitarian aid. Example: India has sent multiple consignments of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan under humanitarian assistance programs.
Why is the recognition of a Taliban envoy in India considered a significant shift in diplomatic policy?
De Facto Recognition of the Taliban Regime: Accepting a Taliban-appointed envoy would signal India’s indirect recognition of the regime, despite its lack of international legitimacy. Example: Most countries, including the U.S. and EU members, have refused to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations.
Departure from India’s Traditional Stand on Terrorism: India has consistently opposed regimes that support terrorism. Engaging with the Taliban contradicts its long-standing stance. Example: India had previously refused to engage with the Taliban, citing its ties to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM).
Contradiction with India’s Human Rights Advocacy: The Taliban’s treatment of women and minorities has been widely condemned, and recognizing its envoy could weaken India’s credibility as a human rights advocate. Example: The UN has termed the Taliban’s policies as “gender apartheid,” which contradicts India’s global image as a democratic and inclusive nation.
Impact on Relations with Western Allies: Closer engagement with the Taliban may strain India’s relations with countries that have imposed sanctions on the Taliban. Example: The U.S. and European nations continue to restrict diplomatic ties and financial transactions with Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.
Risk of Setting a Precedent for Other Unrecognized Regimes: Accepting a Taliban envoy might encourage other unrecognized regimes to seek similar diplomatic treatment, complicating India’s foreign policy. Example: It could open debates on whether India should engage similarly with other disputed governments, such as Myanmar’s military junta.
What are the major risks for India in engaging with the Taliban?
Security Threats and Terrorism: The Taliban’s ties with terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) pose a direct threat to India’s national security. Example: The 2001 Indian Parliament attack was linked to JeM, which has operated from Taliban-controlled areas in the past.
Growing Influence of the Islamic State (IS): The Islamic State-Khorasan Province (IS-K) has been expanding in Afghanistan, carrying out attacks even against the Taliban and its allies. Example: IS-K’s attack on the Moscow Crocus City Hall in 2024 and the bombing of a Kabul hotel housing Chinese nationals show Afghanistan’s instability.
Potential Diplomatic Backlash: Engaging with the Taliban could harm India’s relations with key allies like the U.S. and the EU, which refuse to recognize the Taliban due to human rights violations. Example: The U.S. and European nations maintain economic sanctions on Afghanistan, and aligning too closely with the Taliban could attract criticism.
Destabilization of India’s Western Borders: The Taliban’s alleged support for Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) has worsened Pakistan’s security situation, and any spillover could affect India. Example: TTP claimed 147 attacks in Pakistan in February 2024 alone, and instability in the region could have consequences for India’s border security.
Economic and Infrastructure Investment Risks: Any investments India makes in Afghanistan may not be secure due to the Taliban’s unstable governance and lack of financial transparency. Example: India’s $3 billion investments in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and the Afghan Parliament, remain uncertain under Taliban rule.
Way forward:
Strategic, Conditional Engagement: India should engage with the Taliban on a case-by-case basis, ensuring its security interests are safeguarded while avoiding full diplomatic recognition. Example: Continuing humanitarian aid and infrastructure projects without legitimizing Taliban rule.
Regional and Multilateral Cooperation: India should collaborate with regional partners like Iran, Russia, and Central Asian states to ensure stability in Afghanistan while maintaining ties with Western allies. Example: Strengthening mechanisms like the Moscow Format Talks and UN-led initiatives to balance engagement and counter-terrorism efforts.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically analyse India’s evolving diplomatic, economic and strategic relations with the Central Asian Republics (CARs) highlighting their increasing significance in regional and global geopolitics.(UPSC IAS/2024)
Reason:India’s engagement with CARs is influenced by the situation in Afghanistan and the wider regional security scenario involving the Taliban.
Recently, the Election Commission (EC) has invited political parties for discussions on enhancing the electoral process.
What are the key legal provisions governing the electoral process in India?
Article 324 of the Constitution – Grants the Election Commission (EC) the power of superintendence, direction, and control over elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President.
Representation of the People Act, 1950 – Governs the preparation of electoral rolls and the allocation of seats in Parliament and State Legislatures.
Representation of the People Act, 1951 – Regulates the actual conduct of elections, including provisions on qualifications, disqualifications, election offenses, and corrupt practices.
Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 – Provides rules for the registration of voters, corrections in electoral rolls, and the issuance of Electoral Photo Identity Cards (EPIC).
Model Code of Conduct (MCC) – A set of guidelines issued by the EC to regulate political parties and candidates, ensuring free and fair elections, even though it lacks statutory backing.
How has the voting process evolved in India since the first general elections in 1952?
Ballot Box System (1952-1957) – In the first two general elections (1952, 1957), separate ballot boxes were used for each candidate, where voters dropped blank ballot papers into the box of their chosen candidate.
Printed Ballot Papers (1962 Onwards) – From the third general election (1962), a single ballot paper was introduced with the names and symbols of all candidates, simplifying the voting process. Example: Instead of multiple boxes, voters marked their choice on a single sheet and dropped it in a common ballot box.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) (2004 Onwards) – Since the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, EVMs replaced paper ballots in all constituencies, improving efficiency and reducing errors.
Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) (2019 Onwards) – From the 2019 general elections, EVMs were backed by 100% VVPAT slips, allowing voters to verify their vote on a printed slip for a few seconds before it was stored in a sealed box. Example: A voter pressing a button on the EVM saw a printed slip confirming their vote for Candidate X before it was automatically stored.
Remote Voting and Digital Advancements (Proposed) – The Election Commission is exploring remote voting options for migrant workers and overseas Indians, along with blockchain-based voting mechanisms. Example: The EC has proposed a multi-constituency remote voting machine (RVM) to allow migrant workers to vote from different locations.
Why are electoral reforms necessary?
Addressing Electoral Roll Discrepancies: The ECI aims to improve the accuracy and transparency of electoral rolls, especially amid allegations of tampering in recent elections. For example, opposition parties have raised concerns over duplicate Electoral Photo Identity Card (EPIC) numbers, demanding discussions in Parliament regarding discrepancies in voters’ lists.
Enhancing Gender Representation: The ECI seeks feedback on measures to encourage greater representation of women in political parties and candidate selection processes. This aligns with international practices and aims to make elections more inclusive.
Regulating Election Expenditure: Discussions will focus on expenditure ceilings for elections and ensuring timely submission of audited financial reports by political parties. These measures are intended to enhance transparency and accountability in campaign financing.
Improving Voting Accessibility: The ECI plans to explore alternative voting methods for domestic migrants, absentee voters, and persons with disabilities. This includes feedback on schemes like the Electronically Transmitted Postal Ballot System (ETPBS) to ensure inclusive participation.
Strengthening Legal Frameworks for Campaign Silence Periods: To regulate election campaigns, the ECI will discuss extending restrictions to print media and online canvassing during the 48-hour silence period before polling ends, addressing concerns about social media misuse.
What is the importance of “One Nation, One Election” in the context of electoral reforms?
Enhanced Governance and Policy Continuity – Simultaneous elections reduce the frequent imposition of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), allowing governments to focus on long-term policy implementation without periodic electoral disruptions. Example: If Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections are held together, policymaking won’t be interrupted multiple times due to MCC restrictions.
Cost and Resource Efficiency – Conducting elections at different times leads to repeated expenditure on logistics, security, and manpower. A unified election cycle reduces financial and administrative burdens. Example: The 2019 Lok Sabha elections cost around ₹60,000 crore; merging state and local elections could significantly cut costs.
Increased Voter Turnout and Engagement – Holding elections simultaneously can improve voter participation by reducing election fatigue and mobilization efforts. Example: Countries like Sweden and South Africa conduct national and regional elections together, leading to streamlined voter engagement and participation.
Way forward:
Comprehensive Electoral Reforms – Strengthen legal provisions for campaign financing, voting accessibility, and electoral roll management, ensuring transparency, inclusivity, and fair representation in elections.
Leveraging Technology for Electoral Integrity – Implement secure digital voting mechanisms like blockchain-based voting and remote voting for migrant workers while enhancing VVPAT verification to boost voter confidence.
Mains PYQ:
Q Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “one nation-one election” principle. (UPSC IAS/2024)
Reason: This question directly asks about the necessity of electoral reforms which highlights several areas needing reform, such as allegations of manipulation of electoral rolls, issues with duplicate EPIC numbers, concerns about EVM and VVPAT processes, misuse of “Star Campaigner” status, exceeding election expenditure limits, and criminalization of politics.
The Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, launched the PM-YUVA 3.0 (Prime Minister’s Scheme for Mentoring Young Authors) on 11th March 2025.
About thePM-YUVA Scheme
PM-YUVA 3.0 was launched on 11th March 2025, building upon the success of the first two editions, which focused on themes like national movement and democracy.
It is an initiative by the Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, aimed at mentoring young authors below the age of 30.
The scheme’s objectives include fostering a new generation of writers who can explore topics such as:
Contribution of the Indian Diaspora in Nation Building
Indian Knowledge System
Makers of Modern India (1950-2025)
Background:
PM-YUVA 1.0 (2021): Focused on India’s National Movement & unsung heroes.
PM-YUVA 2.0 (2022): Focused on Democracy and Constitutional Values.
The scheme was designed to promote reading, writing, and book culture in India while showcasing Indian literature and heritage globally.
The National Book Trust (NBT), India, is the implementing agency responsible for executing the scheme.
The scheme aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, aiming to empower youth, develop creative leaders, and encourage capacity building in India’s younger generation.
Important Features of PM-YUVA 3.0
An All-India Contest will be held through MyGov from 11 March 2025 to 10 April 2025.
50 authors will be selected across three themes.
Evaluation of proposals will be completed by April 2025, and the final list of selected authors will be announced between May-June 2025.
Each selected author will receive a ₹50,000 monthly scholarship for six months, totaling ₹3 lakh per author.
Authors will also receive a 10% royalty on successful publications of their books.
Books created under the scheme will be published by the National Book Trust and translated into other Indian languages, promoting literary exchange and supporting the vision of ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’.
Applicants who have qualified for PM-YUVA 1.0 and PM-YUVA 2.0 are not eligible for this edition.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, consider the following statements :
1. It is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
2. It, among other things, will also impart training in soft skills, entrepreneurship, financial and digital literacy.
3. It aims to align the competencies of the unregulated workforce of the country to the National Skill Qualification Framework.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Recently a White House official has proposed expelling Canada from the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance. This comes as Donald Trump pressures Canada, even suggesting it could be transformed into the 51st U.S. state.
About the Five Eyes Alliance (FVEY):
The FVEY is a global intelligence-sharing network comprising 5 Anglosphere countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, and the United States.
Established in 1946 following the UKUSA Agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom, it is one of the most secretive and influential alliances in global intelligence and security.
The alliance primarily focuses on sharing intelligence, especially signals intelligence (SIGINT), and collaborates on security matters like counterterrorism, cybersecurity, and geopolitical monitoring.
It plays a pivotal role in global surveillance programs, such as ECHELON, and is a key player in shaping international intelligence policy.
Members of the FVEY:
Australia: Plays a key role in monitoring the Asia-Pacific region and contributes to SIGINT and cybersecurity efforts.
Canada: Contributes significantly to global communications intelligence, focusing on networks and signals intelligence.
New Zealand: Has a relatively reserved role but provides valuable intelligence, particularly in the Pacific region.
United Kingdom: Works closely with the United States and is instrumental in intelligence gathering across Europe and the Middle East.
United States: The largest contributor of intelligence, particularly in global SIGINT, and leads the alliance in intelligence operations.
Mandate:
The Five Eyes primarily focuses on intelligence sharing, especially signals intelligence (intercepted communications, satellite data, etc.), but has expanded to include human intelligence (HUMINT), geospatial intelligence (GEOINT), and cybersecurity.
The alliance works on global surveillance programs, collecting data on adversarial governments, counterterrorism efforts, and counterintelligence operations.
A key principle of the alliance is the “no third-party rule,” meaning intelligence shared among member countries is not passed on to non-member states without permission.
PYQ:
[2020] “Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss.”
India’s goods trade deficit has dropped to a 42-month low of $14.05 billion in February 2025, driven by reduced imports of gold, silver, and crude oil, according to the latest data from the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Key Insights from February 2025 Trade Data
Exports: Goods exports amounted to $36.9 billion in February 2025.
Imports: Merchandise imports fell to a 22-month low of $50.9 billion, primarily due to lower demand for gold, silver, and crude oil.
Gold and Silver Imports: The value stood at $2.7 billion, the lowest since June 2024.
Crude and Petroleum Imports: Reduced to $11.89 billion, marking the lowest level since July 2023.
On a year-on-year basis, exports dipped by 10.84% in February 2025, partially due to the base year effect of a leap month.
However, imports shrank by 16.3% compared to February 2024.
Impact of Lower Trade Deficit on India’s Economy
Stronger Currency: A lower trade deficit reduces demand for foreign currencies, leading to an appreciation of the Indian Rupee. This makes imports cheaper, benefiting consumers and businesses.
Improved Current Account Balance: The lower trade deficit positively impacts India’s balance of payments, reducing dependence on external borrowing or foreign investments, and contributing to financial stability.
Boost to Domestic Production: A decrease in imports encourages local manufacturing and reduces reliance on foreign products, stimulating economic growth and creating jobs.
Growth in Exports: The reduced deficit reflects a higher level of exports, improving India’s foreign exchange reserves and supporting industrial output.
Reduced Inflation: With fewer imports, particularly of essential goods like crude oil and gold, prices of imported goods stabilize, helping reduce inflationary pressures in the economy.
Better Fiscal Health: A lower trade deficit leads to less reliance on external financing, helping the government maintain fiscal stability and potentially improve credit ratings.
Positive Investor Sentiment: A smaller trade deficit enhances investor confidence, attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI), boosting economic development.
Focus on Self-Reliance: Reduced imports drive self-reliance, encouraging domestic production, and decreasing dependency on imports for essential goods and services.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. India’s merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports.
2. India’s imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilisers and machinery have decreased in recent years.
3. India’s exports of services are more than its imports of services.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
