Several States, including some governed by the Centre urged to rein in its reliance on raising revenues through cesses and surcharges which reduce their share in the divisible pool of taxes.
What are Cesses and Surcharges?
The Union government has the authority to collect money through a variety of levies referred to as a tax, fee, cess, and surcharge.
(A) Cess
Cess is charged on the tax amount and is levied for a specific purpose.
In India, cess is applicable to all the taxpayers, and it is calculated over, and above the base tax liability of the taxpayer, cess taxes initially go to the consolidated fund of India (CFI) that has to be used for the purpose for which it was collected.
Education Cess, Swachh Bharat Cess
(B) Surcharge
The surcharge is levied on the tax payable and not on the total income.
It directly goes to the CFI, and after that it can be used for any purpose, just like the normal tax.
Surcharge applies to the taxpayer whose income is more than Rs 50 lakh.
In simple terms, surcharge is a tax on tax that is not collected for any particular cause, and the union government may use the proceeds of surcharges for any purpose it sees as important.
The objective behind the surcharge is to put a high tax burden on people with high incomes.
Difference between the two
The rate of cess under income tax is fixed at 4%, whereas the rate of surcharges varies from 10%, 15%, 25% & 37% based on the taxpayers’ total income.
Cess is calculated on total tax and surcharge amount; surcharge is calculated on total tax amount only.
In a nutshell, while both are taxes, cess is collected from every taxpayer to meet a certain purpose, and the surcharge is an additional tax collected from the taxpayers who have higher slab income.
Key difference over which states dispute
Major difference is that each can be shared with the state government, the surcharge can be kept with CFI, and it can be utilised for other taxes.
However, cess should be utilised for a particular reason. This restricts the states expenditure.
Tamil Nadu noted that the share of cesses and surcharges had grown from 10.4% of gross tax revenue in 2011-12 to 26.7% in 2021-22.
This has deprived the States of their legitimate share of revenue collected by the Union Government.
The Central government has constituted a panel to review the implementation and assess efficacy as a poverty alleviation tool of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) scheme.
About the review committee
The committee is headed by former Rural Development secretary Amarjeet Sinha.
It had its first meeting on November 21, 2022, and has been given three months to submit its suggestions.
It is tasked to study the various factors behind demand for MGNREGA work, expenditure trends and inter-State variations, and the composition of work.
It will suggest what changes in focus and governance structures are required to make MGNREGA more effective.
What is MGNREGA?
The MGNREGA stands for Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005.
This is labour law and social security measure that aims to guarantee the ‘Right to Work’.
The act was first proposed in 1991byV. Narasimha Rao.
What is so unique about it?
MGNREGA is unique in not only ensuring at least 100 days of employment to the willing unskilled workers, but also in ensuring an enforceable commitment on the implementing machinery i.e., the State Governments, and providing a bargaining power to the labourers.
The failure of provision for employment within 15 days of the receipt of job application from a prospective household will result in the payment of unemployment allowance to the job seekers.
Any Indian citizen above the age of 18 years who resides in rural India can apply for the NREGA scheme. The applicant should have volunteered to do unskilled work.
Employment is to be provided within 5 km of an applicant’s residence, and minimum wages are to be paid.
Thus, employment under MGNREGA is a legal entitlement.
Why is MGNREGS under fire these days?
Not enough work: Bihar despite its levels of poverty, does not generate enough work to make a concrete difference, and on the other end of spectrum we have Kerala which is economically better but has been utilising it for asset creation.
No asset creation: There is a lack of tangible asset creation. The committee will study if the composition of work taken up presently under the scheme should be changed.
Issues in implementation
Insufficient budgetary allocations: Increase in the nominal budget but actual budget (after adjusting inflation) decreased over the years.
Approved Labour Budget Constraints: The Centre through the arbitrary “Approved Labour Budget” has reduced the number of days of work and put a cap on funds through the National Electronic Fund Management System
Not so attractive wages rate: Currently, MGNREGA wage rates of 17 states are less than the corresponding state minimum wages.
Delay in wage payments: Under the MGNREGA, a worker is entitled to get his or her due wages within a fortnight of completion of work, failing which the worker is entitled to the compensation.
No-work situations are rising: None of the states was able to provide full 100 days employment as mentioned in the scheme.
Data manipulations by authorities: A recent study has found that data manipulation in the MGNREGA is leading to gross violations in its implementation.
Non-purposive spending and corruptions: Many works sanctioned under MGNREGA often seem to be non-purposive. Quite often, they are politically motivated hotspots to create rampant corruption.
Centralization weakening local governance: A real-time MIS-based implementation and a centralised payment system has further left the representatives of the Panchayati Raj Institutions with literally no role in implementation.
Conclusion
Large scale social security programmes like MGNREA are subjected to undergo several stumbling blocks in the times of ongoing pandemic.
Government and NGOs must study the impact of MGNREGA in rural areas so as to ensure that this massive anti-poverty scheme is not getting diluted from its actual path.
We must view MGNREGA as an opportunity and explicitly include it in a broad-based strategy to tackle any socie-economic crisis.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q. Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the “Mahatma Gandhi national rural employment guarantee act”?
(a) Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households.
(b) Adult members of below poverty line (BPL) households.
(c) Adult members of households of all backward communities.
(d) Adult members of any household.
[wpdiscuz-feedback id=”ds7ayg108y” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]
The Finance Ministry is looking at rationalizing long-term capital gains tax structure by bringing parity between similar asset classes and revising the base year for computing indexation benefits.
What is Capital Gains Tax?
Capital gains tax is levied on the profits made on investments (Base Year: 2001).
It covers real estate, gold, stocks, mutual funds, and various other financial and non-financial assets.
Under the Income Tax Act, gains from sale of capital assets — both movable and immovable — are subject to ‘capital gains tax’.
Types of CGT
(A) STCG (Short-term capital asset)
An asset held for a period of 36 months or less is a short-term capital asset.
The criteria is 24 months for immovable properties such as land, building and house property from FY 2017-18.
For instance, if you sell house property after holding it for a period of 24 months, any income arising will be treated as a long-term capital gain, provided that property is sold after 31st March 2017.
The reduced period of the aforementioned 24 months is not applicable to movable property such as jewellery, debt-oriented mutual funds etc.
Some assets are considered short-term capital assets when these are held for 12 months or less. This rule is applicable if the date of transfer is after 10th July 2014 (irrespective of what the date of purchase is). These assets are:
Equity or preference shares in a company listed on a recognized stock exchange in India
Securities (like debentures, bonds, govt securities etc.) listed on a recognized stock exchange in India
Units of UTI, whether quoted or not
Units of equity oriented mutual fund, whether quoted or not
Zero coupon bonds, whether quoted or not
(B) LTCG (Long-term capital asset )
An asset held for more than 36 months is a long-term capital asset.
They will be classified as a long-term capital asset if held for more than 36 months as earlier.
Capital assets such as land, building and house property shall be considered as long-term capital asset if the owner holds it for a period of 24 months or more (from FY 2017-18).
Whereas, below-listed assets if held for a period of more than 12 months, shall be considered as long-term capital asset.
Equity or preference shares in a company listed on a recognized stock exchange in India
Securities (like debentures, bonds, govt securities etc.) listed on a recognized stock exchange in India
Units of UTI, whether quoted or not
Units of equity oriented mutual fund, whether quoted or not
Zero coupon bonds, whether quoted or not
Why is it so complicated?
Capital gains tax is complicated for a few primary reasons.
First, the rate changes from asset to asset. LTCG tax on stocks and equity mutual funds is 10% but on debt mutual funds is 20% with indexation.
Second, holding period changes from asset to asset. The holding period for LTCG tax is two years in real estate, one year for stocks, and three years for debt mutual funds and gold.
Third, exemptions available against it come with their own complex conditions. For instance, buying a house after selling one can get you an exemption, but the new house must be bought in two years or built in three years of the sale.
Stipulated reforms by Finance Ministry
Currently, shares held for more than one year attract a 10% tax on long-term capital gains.
Gains arising from sale of immovable property and unlisted shares held for more than 2 years and debt instruments and jewellery held for over 3 years attract 20% long-term capital gains tax.
Also, a change in base year for computing inflation-adjusted capital gains is being contemplated.
The index year for capital gains tax calculation is revised periodically to make it more relevant. The last revision took place in 2017 when the base year was updated to 2001.
Since the prices of assets increase over time, the indexation is used to arrive at the inflation-adjusted purchasing price of assets to compute long-term capital gains for the purpose of taxation.
The Russian state-owned nuclear energy corporation Rosatom has offered a more advanced fuel option to India’s largest nuclear power station at Kudankulam, which will allow its reactors to run for an extended 2-year cycle without stopping to load fresh fuel.
What is the news?
Rosatom’s nuclear fuel division, TVEL Fuel Company, is the current supplier of TVS – 2 M fuel for the two VVER 1,000 MWe reactors generating power in the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP).
This fuel has an 18-month fuel cycle, meaning that the reactor has to be stopped for fresh fuel loading every one-and-a-half years.
TVEL has now offered the more modern Advanced Technology Fuel (ATF), whose fuel cycle is a whopping 24 months.
Benefits of the move
This fuel will ensure more efficiency and additional power generation due to the prolonged operation of the reactor.
It will result in sizable savings of the foreign exchange need to buy fresh fuel assemblies from Russia.
What is the Nuclear Fuel Cycle?
The nuclear fuel cycle consists of front-end steps that prepare uranium for use in nuclear reactors and back-end steps to safely manage, prepare, and dispose of used—or spent—but still highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel.
Uranium is the most widely used fuel by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission.
Nuclear power plants use a certain type of uranium—U-235—as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart.
Although uranium is about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare at just over 0.7% of natural uranium.
Steps involved in fuel enrichment
Uranium concentrate is separated from uranium ore at uranium mills or from a slurry at in-situ leaching facilities.
It is then processed in conversion and enrichment facilities, which increases the level of U-235 to 3%–5% for commercial nuclear reactors, and made into reactor fuel pellets and fuel rods in reactor fuel fabrication plants.
Nuclear fuel is loaded into reactors and used until the fuel assemblies become highly radioactive and must be removed for temporary storage and eventual disposal.
Chemical processing of spent fuel material to recover any remaining product that could undergo fission again in a new fuel assembly is technically feasible.
Back2Basics: Uranium Enrichment
It is a process that is necessary to create aneffective nuclear fuel out of mined uranium.
It involves increasing the percentage of uranium-235 which undergoes fission with thermal neutrons.
Nuclear fuel is mined from naturally occurring uranium ore deposits and then isolated through chemical reactions and separation processes.
These chemical processes used to separate the uranium from the ore are not to be confused with the physical and chemical processes used to enrich the uranium.
Why is enrichment carried out?
Uranium found in nature consists largely of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238.
Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope.
The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope which does not contribute directly to the fission process (though it does so indirectly by the formation of fissile isotopes of plutonium).
The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the ‘fission’ or splitting of the U-235 atoms since it is the main fissile isotope of uranium.
Naturally occurring uranium does not have a high enough concentration of Uranium-235 at only about 0.72% with the remainder being Uranium-238.
The Supreme Court has launched an online portal that will help citizens file and access applications under the Right to Information (RTI) Act in matters related to the court
What is the online RTI portal?
The online RTI portal has been initiated to make it convenient for people to access information about the Supreme Court.
So far, RTI applications at the Supreme Court had to be filed only via post.
Various public interest litigation (PILs) had been filed before the Supreme Court seeking an online RTI portal for the Court.
The online portal is likely to streamline responses of the Supreme Court under the Right to Information Act.
How does the online portal work?
The online portal can be accessed at a dedicated url.
Essentially, the process of filing an RTI in the Supreme Court is the same as how one normally files the application.
This web portal can be used only by Indian citizens to file RTI applications, first appeals and to make payment for fees, and copying charges, under the Right to Information Act, 2005 (RTI Act).
An applicant must first register themselves in the web portal.
Fees prescribed
The applicant can pay the prescribed fee through internet banking, credit/debit card of Master/Visa or UPI.
The fee per RTI application is ₹10.
Any applicant who is Below Poverty Line (BPL) is exempted to pay the application fee under the RTI Rules, 2012.
Expected time for response
By law, RTIs must be replied to within 30 days.
In fact, in life and death cases, RTIs must be responded to within 48 hours.
Back2Basics: Right to Information
RTI is an act of the parliament which sets out the rules and procedures regarding citizens’ right to information.
It replaced the former Freedom of Information Act, 2002.
Under the provisions of RTI Act, any citizen of India may request information from a “public authority” (a body of Government or “instrumentality of State”) which is required to reply expeditiously or within 30.
In case of the matter involving a petitioner’s life and liberty, the information has to be provided within 48 hours.
The Act also requires every public authority to computerize their records for wide dissemination and to proactively publish certain categories of information so that the citizens need minimum recourse to request for information formally.
Click on the button above to register and schedule a FREE mentorship call for UPSC Interviews 2022. Our team will reach out to you for DAF 2 curation.
Hey future administrators! Today UPSC released a notification wherein they informed that UPSC results will be declared soon. You can read the notification below. It won’t be wrong to say that UPSC has rung the bells for you to start the interview preparation.
And with this, we are excited to formally launch Transcend, our flagship Interview Guidance Program for UPSC CSE 2022.
For the uninitiated (and veterans) as well, you must start by rethinking or curating your DAF-II, it will be released post-UPSC Mains 2022 result but why waste time?
Careful filling of the DAF II is the first step to a great UPSC interview.
Just fill up the form above, we will get on a call and discuss the best ways to fill up the DAF 2, strategize your preparation, find out the weak areas, and get you a personalized mentor.
These are some of the toppers from Civilsdaily IAS who were also a part of Transcend Interview Guidance Program 2022.
We will have CivilsDaily’s Rankers to guide you for UPSC Interviews
This is a FREE program for UPSC aspirants who will clear the Mains 2022.
Just click the above button and fill up the form.
Our team will reach out to you. We will discuss how to best fill your DAF 2, what should be your next step and how to prepare for different aspects.
Highlights of Transcend: Focused offerings for 3 distinct groups of IAS Mains-qualified aspirants
Freshers
Work Ex
Veterans
Dedicated Habitat group, telephonic and zoom/google meet sessions, SWOT analysis via personalized questionnaire & in-person mock interviews with the panel.
This year, we intend to raise the bar even higher by providing trailblazing professional, personalized mentorship. There are 3 broad categories into which the IAS Mains-qualified candidates are be divided:
#1. Freshers: Facing 1st UPSC interview without work-ex
These candidates have given dedicated and exclusive time to UPSC preparation, often right after their graduation. We also have candidates who decide for UPSC a little later in life. These candidates have a wide variety of backgrounds. Some have quit their jobs to prepare for CSE, some may have household and family responsibilities, etc.
The interview, in the case of these aspirants, will focus on academics, mental alertness, critical power of assimilation, leadership and teamwork, variety and depth of interest, etc.
Freshers have the advantage of ‘excitement’ and ‘happy-go-lucky’ attitude, but they also suffer from fear-of-the-unknown.
For them, Transcend will revolve around psychological strengthening and belief formation besides personality development and polishing of soft skills.
#2. Work-Experience: Facing 1st UPSC interview with work-ex
The second category is of working professionals. These candidates have the advantages of leadership, tactfulness, foresight, and maturity. Of all other categories of candidates, the responses of working professionals are expected to be brief, well crafted, balanced, logical and reflecting emotional intelligence. Leadership is another area these aspirants are tested for.
Transcend will focus intensely on each of these general traits. Stress will be on the trends highlighted by the latest research in these domains.
#3. Veterans: Have faced the UPSC interview board in the past
Candidates who have appeared in the UPSC interview, probably more than once; but have consistently scored low marks.
Such a person has the advantage of the experience of the official set-up. She is aware of the entire process, her DAF and does not have fear-of-the-unknown. She has possibly taken mock interviews in her previous attempts but success eludes her owing to some fundamental flaw, which if unidentified, will compromise her chances yet again.
For veterans, our Transcend mentors will analyze your DAF, previous mock interviews, transcript of real interview/s and will have detailed discussions to pinpoint the weakness. Then will follow the personalized recovery strategy.
We are the only institution in this space that brings such high levels of clarity and purpose to the interview program.
All in all, ‘Transcend’ from Civilsdaily is the finest tool you can choose to uncover the shimmering light of your personality and to realize the simmering desire of your heart.
Take that final leap. You are in good hands now.
What to expect in the coming weeks?
#1. Once you submit your draft DAF 2 and other details on the link we will call you up and discuss your draft DAF 2. Also, we request you to send a video snippet (shot over a mobile selfie and sent via Whatsapp to this number or at atul[at]civilsdaily.com) on the questions listed below. These are basic, time tested questions that do not need any preparation but helps us understand your default presentation styles:
Why do you want to join the civil services?
Why should you be selected over the other candidates?
Which in-service officer has inspired you the most and why?
One feedback that you received from a friend, peer or superior that fundamentally changed the way you operate in the world or look at the world?
We want you to be uninhibited, relaxed and natural when you make this video. All questions are compulsory (especially 2, 4 and 5).
#2. We will get back to you with the feedback on your DAF and this video exercise.
#3. Post that, your progress will be tracked in mock interviews and taken over the telephone, skype, and panel-driven mocks and you will be given access to interact with both our in-house mentors and industry experts to fine-tune your reasonings.
We will work on your innate tendencies and help you carve out the best version of yourself.
HOW TO ATTEMPT ANSWERS IN DAILY ANSWER WRITING ENHANCEMENT(AWE)?
Daily 4 questions from General studies 1, 2, 3, and 4 will be provided to you.
A Mentor’s Comment will be available for all answers. This can be used as a guidance tool but we encourage you to write original answers.
You can write your answer on an A4 sheet and scan/click pictures of the same.
Upload the scanned answer in the comment section of the same question.
Along with the scanned answer, please share your Razor payment ID, so that paid members are given priority.
If you upload the answer on the same day like the answer of 11th February is uploaded on 11th February then your answer will be checked within 72 hours. Also, reviews will be in the order of submission- First come first serve basis
If you are writing answers late, for example, 11th February is uploaded on 13th February , then these answers will be evaluated as per the mentor’s schedule.
We encourage you to write answers on the same day. However, if you are uploading an answer late then tag the mentor like @Staff so that the mentor is notified about your answer.
*In case your answer is not reviewed, reply to your answer saying *NOT CHECKED*.
A draft Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Amendment) Bill, 2022, prepared by the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, and Dairying, has been opened for public comment.
Why in news?
Recently, instances of animal cruelty in India witnessed a surge.
The same has ushered the debate around animal rights and the extent of legal protection that the current laws provide them.
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Amendment) Bill, 2022
The Centre has proposed to overhaul The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960, introducing 61 amendments in the law.
It includes stringent penalties of three years’ imprisonment for committing “gruesome cruelty” including “bestiality” with animals.
Main changes proposed in the law
Cruelty as a cognizable offence: Several offences have been made cognizable, which means offenders can be arrested without an arrest warrant.
Recognizing gruesome cruelty: The proposed law describes “gruesome cruelty” as any act involving animals which leads to “extreme pain and suffering” and is “likely to leave the animal in life-long disability”. It includes mutilation or killing of animals by the use of strychnine injection in the heart or any other cruel manner.
Stringent penalties: Essentially, the law is proposed to be made tighter, with more stringent punishments. The draft proposes fines from Rs 50,000 to Rs 75,000 “or the cost of the animal. For killing an animal, the draft Bill proposes a maximum punishment of five years in jail.
What are the existing penal provisions?
An offence such as this — fairly common in India — would currently attract charges under Section 428 (mischief by killing or maiming animal) IPC and Section 11 (treating animals cruelly) of The PCA Act, 1960.
It prescribes some rubbish penal provisions.
Need for such law
Barbarism: In September, a doctor in Rajasthan’s Jodhpur allegedly tied a dog to his car and dragged it across the city.
Non-deterrence: Present provisions are incapable of acting as any deterrent for potential offenders.
Ridicules penalties: First-time offenders under the PCA Act are punished with a fine of Rs 10-50. If it is found that this is not the offender’s first such crime in the past three years, the maximum punishment would be a fine between Rs 25 and Rs 100, a jail term of three months, or both.
Key propositions for such law
Along with animal welfare organisationsandseveral political leaders have in the past called for the law to be amended.
In 2014, the Supreme Court, in ‘Animal Welfare Board of India vs A Nagaraja & Others’, had said that “Parliament is expected to make proper amendment of the PCA Act to provide an effective deterrent.
Government response
In April 2021, the Centre had proposed changes where the penalty can go up to Rs 75,000 per animal or three times the cost of the animal as determined by the jurisdictional veterinarian.
It proposed imprisonment of three years which may extend to five years or both.
The government has finally moved in this direction with proposed amendments.
Legal remedies in India
The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960 recognises that animals can suffer physically and mentally, and is applicable to ‘all living creatures’.
The Constitution also enshrines the principle of ahimsa and mandates to all citizens of India to ‘have compassion for living creatures’.
The Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) is the central body responsible for animal welfare in the country.
The National Institute for Animal Welfare created in 1999, has the broad mandate to improve animal welfare through research, education and public outreach.
According to Section 50(4) of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, a Wildlife Offence Report (WLOR) can be filed.
Apart from increasing penalties, what else is proposed?
(1) Freedoms to animals
“It shall be the duty of every person having charge of an animal to ensure that the animal in his care or under his charge has freedom from:
Thirst, hunger and malnutrition;
Discomfort due to environment;
Pain, injury and diseases;
Fear and distress, and the
Freedom to express normal behaviour for the species
(2) Protection to community animals
The draft defines “community animal” as “any animal born in a community for which no ownership has been claimed by any individual or an organization, excluding wild animals as defined under the wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (53 of 1972).”
The proposed law also says that in case of a community animal, the local government such as municipality or panchayats shall be responsible for taking care of the community animals in a manner developed by the State Government or by the Board.
Latent issues with the law
Simply increasing the quantum of punishment may not be enough to stop cruelty against animals.
Some already marginalised communities like ‘madaris’ (who perform with animals) and ‘saperas’ (snake charmers) may be disproportionately affected.
Others have argued that focusing on the individual act of ‘cruelty’, such as farmers putting up electric fences around their fields, is an incomplete approach.
Conclusion
Steps are needed to mitigate the larger issues of vanishing animal habitats and climate change exacerbating man-animal conflict.
As per the United Nations’ Food and Agricultural Organization, urban and peri-urban agriculture have a significant role in global food and nutritional security, and so it is seeking to encourage such activities through the Urban Food Agenda.
What is Urban Agriculture?
Urban agriculture refers to agricultural practices in urban and peri-urban areas. Peri-urban areas are those transitioning from rural land uses (such as for agriculture or livestock production) to urban ones (such as the built environment, manufacturing, services, and utilities), and are located between the outer limits of urban and regional centres and the rural environment.
Cultivating food and non-food product: Urban agricultural practices are geared towards cultivating or growing a wide range of food and non-food products, and include activities such as rearing livestock, aquaculture, beekeeping, and commercial-scale floriculture.
Farming using software: In France, for instance, certain software gives farmers access to cross-referenced information on their smartphones about the weather, spraying dates, seeds, fertilization plans, and regulatory compliance.
Use of mobile applications: In India and the US, mobile applications can help connect urban growers and local consumers. Technology also helps food growers in precision farming, which involves mapping and monitoring geological and plant data for a field so that inputs can be adapted to suit ultra-localized needs. Local communities can be helpful in the gathering of such data.
Aeroponics: Aero Farms in Newark, US, builds and operates vertical indoor farms to enable local production at scale and increase the availability of safe and nutritious food. The company uses aeroponics to grow leafy greens without sun or soil in a fully controlled environment. The technology enables year-round production with less water consumption and high yields per square metre.
Container system: In Paris, a start-up called Agricool grows strawberries in containers across the city. The company retrofits old, unused containers to accommodate LED lights and aeroponics system to grow strawberries year-round. These ‘cooltainers’ are powered by clean energy and use about 90 percent less water than traditional farming activities. This can also create job opportunities for city residents in the agricultural sector.
Small area large population: India’s total urban area has been estimated at around 222,688 sq. km, or about 6.77 percent of the country’s geographical area. This small area is home to around 35 percent of India’s population, around 500 million Indians.
less area to convert into green spaces: If Indian cities were to allocate 10 percent of their geographic space for greens (gardens, playgrounds, public parks and the like), as suggested in the Urban & Regional Development Plans Formulation & Implementation guidelines, this would mean 22,268 sq. km of the total urban area is available to convert into public green spaces.
Space constraint hinders the urban agriculture: Even if half of this area (111,34 sq. km) were used for urban agriculture instead of parks, gardens, playgrounds, and horticulture, this is a mere 5 percent of all urban area and 0.56 percent of all land under agriculture in the country. This showcases the space constraints that urban agriculture must tackle.
Urban constraints and use of technology
Raised bed farming: Raised bed farming is the agricultural technique of building freestanding crop beds above the existing soil level. In certain instances, raised beds are covered with plastic mulch to create a closed planting bed. The method helps reduce soil compaction and allows better control of the soil. The planted area also gets protected in case of excess rainfall. This method affords far greater productivity than regular farming.
Container gardening: Container gardening refers to the practice of growing plants in containers instead of planting them on the ground. Containers could include polyethene plastic bags, clay pots, plastic pots, metallic pots, milk jugs, ice cream containers, bushel baskets, barrels, and planter box bottles. Most vegetables grown in backyard gardens can be grown in containers.
Aquaponics: A closed-loop aquaponics system is an organic strategy that draws on the strengths of the basic ecological foundations of the nitrogen and carbon cycles. Nutrient-rich fish water is used to fertilise and water plants. This system requires only a few inputs primarily energy and some of the basic plant nutrients.
The vertical farming: The vertical farming model essentially aims at increasing the amount of agricultural land by stacking many racks of crops vertically, thereby having many levels on the same space of land.
Rooftop Plant Production: Under rooftop plant production (RPP) systems, food crops can be grown using raised beds, row farming, or a hydroponic greenhouse. Hydroponics is the practice of growing plants in a nutrient solution with or without a soilless substrate to provide physical support. RPP systems maximize the cultivation area with artificial lighting. RPP can be used to grow crops that require higher light intensities and more vertical space.
Conclusion
Urban agriculture faces several constraints, but each of these can be overcome by adopting a range of technologies, establishing urban agriculture initiatives in peri-urban areas, launching community initiatives in common spaces, and altering planning parameters and city regulations to include urban agriculture as a ULB activity.
Mains Question
Q. What is the urban agriculture? What are constraints in urban agricultural practice and how to overcome those constraints?
